Library  of 


V  J-^  V  \y-\-^.<^    U^  ^  ^\i^J  V  >\  - :  / 


STUDIES 


IN 


GENERAL    HISTORY. 


BY 

MARY   D.   SHELDON,  Bfil^NES 

rORMBRLT  PROFESSOR  OP  HISTORY  IN  WELLE8LET  COLLEGE, 
AND    TEACHER    OF    HISTORY    IN    OSWEGO  ' 

NORMAL  SCHOOL,  N.T. 


2Dead)er*!a;  JHanuaL 


■  It  is  impossible  that  the  history  of  any  state  should  possess  any  interest 
unless  it  show  some  sort  of  development."  —  J.  R.  Seeley. 


BOSTON: 
D.   C.   HEATH  &  COMPANY. 

189(>. 


•    •    •  •   "• 
•       •   •"   • 


COPTRIOHT,  Fbb.  11,  1888, 
Bt  MARY  SHELDON  BARNES. 

EDUCATION  DEPT, 


Nortoooti  )9rt00 : 

J.  S.  Gushing  &  Co.  —  Berwick  &  Smith. 

Boston,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


TO 

My  best  of  Masters, 

This  book  is  most  gratefully 
dedicated. 


543094 


PREFACE. 


THEY  say  my  "  Studies"  are  hard,  and  I  am  glad  to  hear 
it,  for  so  in  truth  they  should  be,  since  history  itself  is 
hard.  Our  text-books  in  this  subject  have  been  mostly  manuals 
of  the  results  of  this  study,  presented  in  more  or  less  attrac- 
tive literary  form.  They  have  given  no  chance  for  any  genuine 
work  ;  and  yet  the  study  of  history  demands  most  serious  work  ; 
like  mathematics,  it  involves  logic ;  like  language,  it  demands 
analysis  and  fine  discrimination  of  terms  ;  like  science,  it  calls 
for  exact  observation  ;  like  law,  it  needs  the  cool,  well-balanced 
judgment ;  beyond  all  these,  it  requires  the  highest,  fullest  use 
of  the  sympathetic  imagination.  In  fact,  no  study  is  more  dif- 
ficult ;  none  calls  more  completely  on  all  the  mental  powers,  ijone 
affords  the  mind  more  generous  play. 

It  is  indeed  easy  to  read  and  then  repeat:  "Magna  Charta 
laid  the  foundation  of  English  liberty  "  ;  "  The  Athenian  peo- 
ple were  brave,  patriotic,  magnanimous,  and  highly-cultured  "  ; 
"The  government  of  Lewis  XIV.  was  arbitrary,  corrupt,  un- 
just, extravagant "  ;  but  to  read,  or  even  to  learn  such  sen- 
tences as  these  by  heart,  is  not  to  study,  or  even  to  touch  the 
study  of  history ;  these  are  mere  statements  of  the  results  of 
historical  research ;  before  he  can  name  his  work  "  study,"  the 
pupil  must  have  found  out  some  results  for  himself,  by  exercis- 
ing his  own  powers  upon  the  necessary  "raw  material"  of 
history  ;  let  him  read  Magna  Charta  ;  let  him  see  the  Athenian 
people  in  action  in  their  contemporary  world  ;  let  him  have  the 
facts  of  French  organization  and  administration  under  Lewis 
XIV.  ;  let  him  look,  and  look  again,  like  Agassiz*  famous 
pupil  at  the  fish,  until  he  sees  the  essential  spirit,  purpose,  or 
character  displayed  within  these  words  and  deeds  and  figures ; 
thus   he   becomes   a  genuine    student.     By  such   practice,  he 


•  ''*  Vi '  •  * •  *  PKEFACE. 

learns,  as  a  practical  historian,  to  interpret  social  and  political 
forms  and  facts,  as  the  biologist  learns  to  interpret  living 
organisms  by  the  actual  dissection  of  a  few  typical  forms,  or 
as  the  mathematician  fits  himself  to  wrestle  with  new  complica- 
tions by  conquering  well-set,  formal  problems ;  in  each  case, 
actual  work  is  done ;  and  nought  but  actual  work  knits  us  to 
reality. 

In  teaching  history  in  higher  grades,  three  points  must 
always  be  in  mind :  first,  to  give  each  student  independent 
work  ;  next,  to  subject  the  results  of  solitary,  individual  thought 
to  the  freest  criticism  and  discussion  in  the  class-room ;  last 
of  all,  the  accepted  results  of  tlie  collective  labor  must  be 
arranged  in  compact  and  logical  order,  and  stowed  away  in 
memory.  By  the  solitar}'  study  of  the  individual,  the  mind 
gains  power  and  originality ;  by  the  "  free  lance  in  a  free 
field  "  of  class-room  work,  the  mind  gains  courage,  sharpness, 
speed,  and  generous  temper ;  by  the  strict,  close  sifting  of 
stu^iy  and  discussion,  it  gains  concentration,  clearness,  and 
breadth. 

This  mode  of  instruction  is,  in  its  essence,  the  famous 
*^  Seminary"  method,  first  employed  in  Germany,  and  of  late 
introduced  into  our  own  leading  colleges.  To  render  its  advan- 
tages available  for  large  classes  with  limited  libraries,  and  a 
limited  course  of  historical  stud}',  I  have  made  these  two  books  : 
the  Student's  edition  contains  the  material  and  the  problems  for 
independent  study  ;  the  Teacher's  Manual  contains  the  answers 
to  these  problems,  embodied  in  tabulations,  and  a  running  com- 
mentary' of  text,  which  may  serve  as  suggestive  for  the  discus- 
sions and  the  summaries  demanded  by  the  class-room. 

As  for  the  advantage  of  this  method  to  the  teacher,  I  can 
only  say  that  I  can  but  hope  it  will  save  him  the  tedium  of  the 
treadmill ;  that  it  will  bring  him  day  by  day  the  living,  sympa- 
thetic touch  of  youthful  thought  and  feeling;  and  that,  in 
time,  the  world  may  read  with  fairer,  clearer  meaning  to 
himself. 

MARY  SHELDON   BARNES. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 


PAGS 

Preface v-vi 

Civilized  World  Before  776  B.C 1-7 

Introductory 1-3 

A.  Study  on  Egypt 3-4 

B.  Study  on  Tigro-I^uj^rates  Valley          ....  5 

C.  Study  on  Phoenicia 6 

D.  Study  on  Judsea     .         .  ^  r 7 

Hellas      .....* 8-35 

A.  Study  on  Heroic  Age 9-13 

B.  Study  on  Historic  Greece 13-21 

C.  Study  on  the  Persian  Wars 21-27 

D.  Study  on  the  Athenian  Leadership ;  Age  of  Perikles  .  27-33 

E.  F.  Study  on  Period  431-338 33-35 

The  Hellenistic,  or  Alexandrian  Conquests  and  King- 
doms                  .         .         .         .  36-39 

Rome 39-83 

Introductory 39-40 

A,  B.l.   Study  on  Regal  Rome  and  Prse-Punic  Republic  .  41-46 

B.  II.   Study  on  Republican  Rome,  Punic  Period      .         .  46-52 

B.  III.   Study  on  Republican  Rome,  Post-Punic  Period     .  53-58 

C.  I.   Study  on  Pagan  Empire,  Augustus  to  Diocletian     .  58-65 

Teutonic  Barbarians  before  476  a.d 65-68 

C.  II.   Christian  Empire,  Constantine  to  Charlemagne      .  68-83 

A.  Christian  Empire  under  Roman  Control        .         .  69-75 

B.  and  C.  The  West  under  Barbarian  Control ;  Empire 

of  Charlemagne        . 76-83 


Vlll  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PASS 

European  History,  814-1880 84-167 

Introductory 84-85 

A.  Early  Mediaeval  Period;   Charlemagne  to  the  Cru- 

sades, 814-1095 86-94 

B.  Study  on  Crusading  Period 94-100 

C.  Study  on  Later  Mediaeval  Period       ....  100-114 

D.  Renaissance  and  Reformation  Era    ....  115-127 

E.  Modern  Europe 128-167 

L  The  "Old  Regime,"  1648-1789  .        .        .        .  128-140 

Aa,  In  Europe  in  General       ....  128-134 

Ah.   In  France 134-140 

II.  French  Revolution  and  Wars  of  Napoleon        .  141-149 

French  Revolution 141-144 

Napoleonic  Rule      .        .        .        .        .        .  145-146 

Prussian  Revolution 146-149 

III.  The  Nineteenth  Century 150-167 

In  General 150-162 

Special  Study  on  Germany      ....  162 

Special  Study  on  Italy 162-166 

Socialism 166 


STUDIES   IN   GENEEAL   HISTORY. 


Eeacijer's  iWanual. 


STUDIES  IN  GENEEAL  HISTORY. 


[N.B.  —  All  page  references  are  to  the  Students'  Edition.] 


THE    CIVILIZED    WORLD    BEFORE    776    B.C. 

Before  the  "  Studies  "  are  begun  at  all,  the  teacher  should 
have  a  preliminary  discussion  of  the  meaning  of  the  word 
"  civilization."  I  have  found  it  a  very  good  plan  to  give  the 
students  for  the  first  day's  lesson  this  requirement  for  home 
work,  —  "Make  a  list  of  all  the  reasons  you  have  for  calling 
yourselves  civilized."  You  will  find  when  the  answers  are 
brought  the  next  day  that  you  have  plenty  of  material  for  dis- 
cussion and  analysis.  Since  the  greatest  masters  hesitate  to 
define  the  word  civilization,  it  will  probabty  be  best  in  the 
class-room  work  simply  to  aim  at  some  general,  but  clear  ideas, 
which  may  strengthen  and  elucidate  its  meaning.  The  material 
brought  by  the  pupils  in  answer  to  your  question  will  probably 
enable  you  to  make  some  such  anal3'sis  as  follows  :  — 

CIVILIZATION. 
Proofs  of. 

Houses,  clothing,  furniture,  etc. 

Railroads,  roads,  telegraphs,  post-offices,  etc. 

Books,  pictures,  schools,  etc. 

Churches,  societies,  etc. 

The  family  and  the  home,  etc. 

Government,  courts  of  law,  etc. 
Directions  of. 

Material,  industrial,  and  commercial. 

Intellectual  and  aesthetic. 

Religious. 

Social. 

Political. 
Present  Area  of  European  (progressive)  Civilization. 


;2!  :■;';.'.';  ■     :  bttoies  in  general  history. 

In  discussing  the  present  area  of  European  (or  Aryan) 
civilization,  the  teacher  may  ask  the  pupils  how  this  civilization 
is  different  from  that  of  China  and  India,  and  note  that  Euro- 
pean civilization  is  marked  by  progress  as  opposed  to  immo- 
bility. With  some  classes  of  pupils  it  may  not  be  amiss  to  ask 
what  classes  of  people  in  Europe  and  America  are  most  civil- 
ized, requiring  some  proof  for  the  answer  given,  and  calling 
attention  to  the  fact  that  in  the  most  civilized  countries,  civili- 
zation in  its  higher  directions  is  most  widely  diffused  among  all 
classes,  although  even  in  these  countries,  it  is  far  from  being 
equally  so. 

This  whole  discussion  should  be  treated  simply  and  largely, 
giving  room  and  freedom  for  all  opinions,  without  any  anxiety 
for  particularly  close  or  definite  results,  which  are  indeed  un- 
desirable in  dealing  with  such  a  subject. 

The  pupils  are  now  ready  for  the  questions  on  p.  3.  They 
will  note  that  Egypt,  the  Tigro-Euphrates  valley,  Phoenicia, 
and  Judaea,  were  each  so  protected  from  easy  invasion,  b}' 
mountains,  rivers,  deserts,  and  seas,  and  at  the  same  time  so 
fortunate  in  climate  and  so  easily  supported  by  agriculture  or 
commerce,  that  men  in  these  countries  could  devote  a  part, 
at  least,  of  their  time  and  strength  to  the  various  arts  of 
civilization.  This  Oriental  civilization  would  first  enter  Europe 
in  the  South,  both  because  here  Europe  is  easily  reached  from 
the  East,  and  fairly  protected  from  invasion,  being  peninsular 
southward  and  guarded  by  mountain-barriers  northward. 

If  there  be  time,  it  will  be  interesting  just  here  to  notice  the 
various  modern  states  of  Europe  and  see  how  far  their  political 
boundaries  have  natural  defenses,  Prussia  being  a  very  good 
example  of  a  state  without,  and  England  of  a  state  with,  natu- 
ral boundaries.  If  the  pupils  have  difficulty  in  seeing  that 
civilization  will  grow  fastest  where  the  protection  from  inva- 
sion is  greatest,  other  things  being  equal,  simply  ask  them  to 
name  some  of  the  things  which  civilized  people  make  and  do, 
and  they  will  soon  see  that  time  and  quiet,  and  therefore  a  cer- 
tain  amount  of    peace,   are   necessary   to  civilization.     This 


STUDY   ON   EGYPT.  3 

point  being  made,  they  are  ready  to  see  how  the  deserts  and 
mountains,  rivers  and  seas,  were  so  placed  as  to  allow  an  early 
civilization  along  the  Nile  and  Euphrates  valleys,  while  their 
fertile  soil,  capable  of  feeding  thousands  with  little  toil,  gave 
whole  classes  leisure  for  varied  industries.  It  has  been  sug- 
gested to  me,  moreover,  that  the  rivers  that  traverse  these 
great  valleys  made  an  easy  means  of  communication  between 
the  various  parts  of  their  respective  lands,  —  a  point  of  great 
importance. 


A.   STUDY   ON  EGYPT. 

The  answers  given  to  the  questions  on  pp.  7  and  15,  and  on 
p.  3  concerning  Egypt,  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 

EGYPT,  4000  (?) -1250  (?)  B.C. 

Natural  Advantages  for  Early  Civilization. 
Protection  from  invasion  by 
desert. 

seas. 
Abundance  of  food  easily  procured,  by  reason  of 

climate. 

fertile  soil. 

level  surface. 

annual  inundation  of  the  Nile. 
Easy  internal  communication  by  means  of  the  Nile. 
Organization   of  Society   (Oriental)  :    aristocratic,  theocratic,  and 
monarchic,  centred  at  Memphis  and  Thebes  :  — 
King :  ruler,  general,  builder,  ^ 

Priests  :  scholars,  authors,  and  officials,  >■  land-owners. 
Nobles  :  soldiers  and  officials,  ) 

Common  people :  traders  and  artizans :  embalmers,  stone-cutters, 

engravers,  jewellers,  scribes,  carpenters,  cabinet-makers 

weavers,  potters,  glass-makers,  etc.,  etc. 
Serfs,  slaves,  and  captives:   worked  the  land  and  served  in 

the  household,  hewed  and  carried  the  stone,  and  made 

the  brick  for  great  public  works. 


4  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Egypt.  —  Continued. 

CharacteristicB  of  People  and  Civilization. 

Political : 

absolutism;   centralization  of   industrial,  religious,  and 
political  life  in  the  king,  supported  by  land-owning 
privileged  classes. 
Social:  inequality. 

Industrial :  high  material  development. 
Moral : 

obedience  and  kindne'ss  most  admired, 
standard  of  morality  high. 
Religious : 

polytheistic  nature-worship,  with  monotheistic  tendencies, 
absolute  trust  in  immortality, 
belief  in  the  ability  of  the  gods  to  help  men. 
close  union  of  religion  with  the  state,  as  shown  in  — 
importance  of  temples  and  privileges  of  priests, 
sacredness  of  king. 
Intellectual : 

attainment  of  culture  in  — 
literature. 

mathematics;  geometry, 
astronomy, 
medicine, 
great  inequality  of  culture. 
Esthetic : 

admiration  for  solidity  and  size. 
Enduring  Remains  of  Civilization. 
Monuments :  pyramids,  temples. 

Objects  of  fine  and  industrial  art :  sculpture,  jewelry,  etc. 
Knowledge :  geometrical,  mathematical,  medical. 
Literature :  theology,  morals,  poetry,  fiction,  historic  records. 

In  summarizing  these  results  the  teacher  will  find  it  necessary 
perhaps  to  give  such  terms  as  Oriental,  monarchic,  aristocratic, 
theocratic,  absolutism,  polytheism,  monotheism,  but  in  each 
case  he  should  first  give  the  pupils  themselves  the  chance  to 
apply  the  term.  And  when  given,  the  word  should  be  defined 
as  exactly  as  possible  by  the  pupils,  in  order  that  the  teacher 
may  be  sure  of  its  being  understood  in  its  application. 


STUDY   ON   THE   TIGRO-EUPHEATES  VALLEY.  5 

B.   STUDY  ON  THE  TiaEO-EUPHEATES  VALLEY. 
This  study  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 

TIGRO-EUPHRATES  VALLEY. 
Natural  Advantages  for  Early  Civilization. 

Same  as  in  Egypt,  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates  taking  the  place 
of  the  Nile. 
Organization  of  Society. 

Similar  to  that  of  Egypt  (Oriental). 
Characteristics  of  People  and  Civilization. 
Political  and  Social : 

as  in  Egypt,  but  centred  at  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 
Industrial :  similar  to  that  of  Egypt. 
Moral ; 

admiration  for  power, 
desire  of  wealth. 
Religious : 

polytheistic  belief. 

belief  in  the  power  of  the  gods  in  human  affairs, 
close  union  of  religion  with  the  state. 
Intellectual : 

attainment  of  culture  in 
literature, 
mathematics, 
astronomy, 
inequality  of  culture. 
Esthetic :  admiration  for  the  rich  and  brilliant. 
Enduring  Remains. 

Objects  of  industrial  art. 
Astronomical  knowledge. 
Historic  records  (clay  cylinders). 
Reliefs  and  sculptured  figures  of  deities.^ 

In  summarizing  B^  particular  attention  should  be  called  to 
the  fact  that  the  king  is  very  positively  the  centre,  not  only  of 
religious,  but  of  industrial  and  intellectual  life ;  in  fact,  the 
king,  his  palaces  and  temples,  embody  and  include  the  civiliza- 
tion of  Babylon  and  Nineveh. 

*  The  object  of  the  stone  lions  and  bulls  was  not  so  much  aesthetic  as 
protective,  magic  qualities  evidently  being  ascribed  to  them.     (See  p.  18.) 


6  STUDIES   IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

a  STUDY  ON  PHCENIOIA. 
In  this  study  the  trade  and  commerce  of  the  Phoenicians  must 
be  emphasized,  and  the  pupils  will  see  that  ship-building,  navi- 
gation, and  some  manufactures  are  necessary  to  a  people  living 
by  trade ;  that  the  Phoenicians  would  find  the  best  markets 
among  civilized  peoples,  whose  wants  were  greatest,  and  that  by 
virtue  of  their  occupation  they  were  at  once  the  greatest  learners 
and  the  greatest  teachers  of  antiquity  :  on  the  one  hand,  observ- 
ing the  geography,  the  manners  and  customs,  the  arts  and 
industries  of  all  the  people  among  whom  they  traded ;  on  the 
other,  diffusing  this  knowledge  by  interchanging  from  land  to 
land  the  various  products  of  the  Mediterranean  basin.  There 
is  much  proof  that  through  their  agency  civilization  began  to 
urge  its  way  into  Europe  along  the  line  of  the  Greek  coasts  and 
islands.     Summarize  as  follows  :  — 

PHCENICIA. 
Natural  Advantages  of  Position. 

Protected  from  invasion  by  mountains  and  the  sea. 
On  the  road  from  Egypt  to  Mesopotamia. 
Character  of  People  and  Culture. 

Industrial  and  commercial,  centring  in  coast  cities  of  PhcB- 

nicia,  and  in  trading-posts  (colonies). 
Great  variety  of  occupations,  as  in  Egypt  and  Mesopotamia, 
adding  navigation,  ship-building,  lumbering,  and  mining ; 
slave-dealing,  dyeing,  ivory-carving. 
Enduring  Remedns  of  Civilization. 

Objects  of    industrial   art  throughout  Mediterranean    region 

(glass,  pottery,  metal-work). 
Knowledge  of  navigation,  its  methods,  and  routes.^ 
The  leading  Alphabets. 

In  discussing  the  general  questions  on  p.  25,  let  the  interpre- 
tation of  answers  be  very  generous,  simply  maintaining  this 
point :  that  the  Oriental  civilizations  were  prominently  material, 
with  germs  of  higher  types  appearing  in  their  midst. 

1  The  finding  of  tin  for  bronze  was,  according  to  Lenormant  and  Cheral' 
lier,  one  of  the  chief  aims  of  PhccDician  commerce. 


STUDY   ON   JUD^A.  7 

D.   STUDY  ON  JUDllA. 

In  this  study  the  teacher  will  of  course  be  careful  to  work 
entirely  from  the  historical  standpoint,  avoiding  an}"  possible 
theological  or  sectarian  discussion.  I  have  taken  special  pains 
to  present  Judaea  just  as  I  have  presented  Egypt  or  Phoenicia, 
in  order  that  the  student  may  see  its  historical  relations. 

The  following  summary  may  be  useful  as  a  guide  :  — 

JUD^A. 
Advantages  of  Position. 

Protected  from  invasion  by  mountains,  deserts,  and  the  sea. 
Vicinity  to  Phoenicia  and  Egypt. 
Organization  of  Society :  theocratic,  monarchic. 
Characteristics  of  People  and  Culture. 
Political : 

close  union  of  church  and  state. 

predominance  of  priestly  and  prophetic  influence. 
Religious : 

monotheism,  mixed  with  polytheism. 

close  relation  of  religion  and  practical  life. 
Moral : 

high  moral  standard  imposed  by  faith. 

great  admiration  for  mercy  and  justice. 
Enduring  Remains  of  Civilization. 
The  monotheistic  faith. 
Books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

With  the  material  easily  accessible  in  the  Old  Testament,  the 
teacher  may,  if  he  thinks  it  desirable,  carry  this  study  still  fur- 
ther, and  note  that  the  Jews  were  eminently  a  race  of  shepherds, 
farmers,  warriors,  and  priests,  with  a  serious,  poetic  tempera- 
ment easily  seen  in  all  their  literature. 

In  discussing  the  answers  to  the  questions  on  p.  29,  the 
teacher  should  allow  the  utmost  freedom  of  opinion,  simply 
requiring  that  any  position  taken  should  be  sustained  by  facts. 
It  is  well  to  allow  the  pupils  to  feel  that  oftentimes  there  is  a 
reasonable  difference  of  opinion,  while  at  the  same  time  he 
should  be  led  to  understand  that  only  those  opinions  are  respect- 


6  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

able  which  have  some  sound  basis  in  realit3-.  Thus,  while  there 
can  hardly  be  a  question  but  that  among  the  Jews,  the  pure  and 
upright  priest,  or  the  righteous  valiant  king  were  the  popular 
ideals,  and  that  among  the  Assyrians  wealth  was  regarded 
above  all  things,  it  may  very  justly  be  questioned  whether  piety 
or  power  was  the  ruling  ideal  among  the  Eg3^ptians ;  probably 
both  ideals  should  be  admitted. 

The  following  questions  and  topics  are  given  as  suggestions 
for  essays  or  for  dictation  for  examination  :  — 

What  can  a  watch  teach  us  of  its  makers  ?  What  characteristics  of 
Egyptian  art  still  strike  us  as  admirable  ?  Aside  from  religion,  name 
two  or  three  points  in  which  our  civilization  is  superior  to  that  of  the 
Egyptians.  What  can  the  Temple  of  Solomon  teach  us  historically  ? 
The  greatness  of  Rameses.  The  palace  of  Sargon.  The  Phoenician 
sailor.     The  captive  Jew  in  Babylon.     Our  Oriental  debt. 

HELLAS. 

STUDY    ON    MAP    OF    GREECE. 

After  the  preliminary  study  of  the  map  of  Europe,  the  pupils 
will  easily  answer  the  questions  on  the  geography  of  Greece, 
and  will  see  that  while  agriculture  and  grazing  may  be  found 
throughout  the  countr}',  Laconia  is  especially  fitted  for  agricul- 
ture, Arcadia  for  grazing,  while  Attica,  adapted  to  fishing  and 
Tnining,  most  naturally  invites,  by  its  position,  the  trade  of  Asia 
and  the  islands.  As  for  the  actual  relations  of  Greece  and  the 
civilization  of  -Asia  and  Egypt,  the  myths  (see  pp.  33  and  34) 
indicate  that  Greece  owed  her  start  in  civilization  to  the  older 
countries. 

From  the  answers  given  by  the  pupils  the  teacher  summarizes 
somewhat  as  follows :  — 

GREECE. 
Geographic  Advantages. 

Small  states  with  natural  defences. 
;  Eastward  opening  harbors. 


STUDY   ON   HEROIC   AGE. 

Vicinity  to  older  civilizations. 
Vicinity  of  eastward  leading  islands. 
Insular  and  temperate  climate. 
Variety  of  products,  .*.  ^ 
Variety  of  occupation. 

Agriculture  (Laconia). 

Fishing,  grazing  (Arcadia). 

Quarrying,  mining,  trade  (Attica). 


A.   STUDY  ON  HEROIO  AGE ;   HOMERIO  GKEEOE. 

The  teacher  should  not  undertake  to  summarize  any  of  the 
work  in  A  until  the  studies  on  pp.  37,  39,  42,  and  46  have  been 
thoroughly  mastered  and  discussed ;  he  may  then  tabulate  as 
follows :  — 

A.  HOMERIC   GREECE. 
Peculiar  Institutions. 
Amphictyony : 

Bound  together  by  kinship  and  faith. 
Amphictyonic  Council : 

Religious  league,  with  Delphic  Oracle  as  its  centre. 
Political  Organization  (Monarchic). 
King: 

Leads  in  council. 
Leads  in  war. 
Law-giver  and  priest. 
Supported  by 
plunder, 
gifts. 

produce  of  his  own  lands, 
sale  of  war-captives  as  slaves. 
Council  of  Elders : 

Advises  and  persuades 
king, 
people. 
Hears  proposals. 
Judges  the  people. 

1  .♦.  =  therefore,  wherever  used. 


10  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Homeric  Greece.  —  Continued. 

General  Assembly  of  people  (Agora;  market-place  meeting): 
Hears  announcements  of  king  and  princes. 
Expresses  public  opinion 

by  shouting  (approval), 
by  silence  (disapproval). 
Social  Organization  :   Aristocratic  and  patriarchal,  consisting  of 
Classes : 

Nobles ;  chiefs. 

Freemen  (common  people). 

Slaves 

bought, 
stolen, 
captured. 
Patriarchal,^  monogamic  families. 
Characteristics  of  Civilization. 
Political : 

Participation  of  all  free  men  in  the  government. 
Value  of  public  opinion. 
Social : 

Patriarchal  power  tempered  toward  women  by 
public  opinion, 
religion, 
affection. 
Slavery,  mild. 

Amusements,  healthful  and  developing,  consisting  of 
physical  contests, 
music, 
dancing, 
story-telling. 
Habits  of  equality,  simplicity,  hospitality. 
Industrial  and  commercial : 

Sources  of  material  civilization,  —  Oriental,  notably  Phoe- 
nician and  Egyptian. 
Great  variety  of  occupation  and  interest  (see  list  of  gods, 

p.  36). 
Eapid  growth  of  trade  between  various  parts  of  Greece, 
encouraged   by  easy  water   communication   and 
varied  productions. 

*  In  the  case  of  the  absence  or  death  of  the  father,  the  son  takes  his 
place,  as  in  the  case  of  Telemachus. 


STUDY   OK  HEROIC   AGE.  11 

Religious : 

Belief,  polytheistic  and  anthropomorphic,  — 
Gods  thought  to  be 
immortal . 

of  superhuman  power, 
subordinate  to  Zeus. 

influential  and  interested  in  human  affairs, 
persuaded  by 
hymns, 
sacrifices, 
prayers, 
obedience. 
Future  life  regarded  as 

shadow  of  the  present, 
undesirable  and  gloomy. 
Close  relation  of  religion  and  life. 
Intellectual  and  sesthetic : 

Cultivation  of  music  and  poetry  through  religion. 
Beginning  of  sculpture  and  architecture. 
Permanent  Remains  of  Homeric  Age. 
Homeric  poems  :  Iliad  and  Odyssey. 

Fortifications   at   Mycenae,    in  the   Troad,  and   at   other  pre- 
historic sites. 
Objects   of  industrial   work    (pottery,   metal-work)   found  at 
above  sites. 

The  teacher  may  find  that  the  work  on  the  Homeric  age 
occupies  what  seems  a  disproportionate  part  of  his  time.  My 
own  experience  has  proved  to  me  that  a  sloio  and  thorough  be- 
ginning made  here  pays^  and  that  time  is  actually  made  by  lei- 
surely conscientious  work  at  the  opening.  In  looking  over  the 
summary,  the  teacher  must  realize  that  the  mind  of  the  pupil  for 
the  first  time  entering  history,  finds  many  new  and  great  ideas 
to  assimilate ;  fundamental  ideas,  also,  several  of  them  asso- 
ciated with  new  and  difficult  terms,  with  which  he  needs  to 
be  familiar  through  all  his  work.  I  cannot  sufficiently  empha- 
size this  point. 

In  the  Amphictyony,  for  instance,  he  meets  with  a  thoroughly 
characteristic  organization  of  antiquity,  namely,  a  society  held 


,12  STUDIES    IN   GENERAL   HISTOKY. 

together  by  the  bonds  of  a  common  faith,  and  a  common  kinship, 
real  or  assumed.  He  should  be  helped  to  understand  it  by 
reference  to  the  Scottish  clans,  and  to  the  churches  and  families 
of  his  own  vicinity.  By  such  reference  he  may  be  led  to  imagine 
the  strength  and  value  of  these  ancient  bonds  of  union,  as  giv- 
ing real  fighting  power.  In  the  political  and  social  organization 
he  should  clearly  apprehend  in  its  large  and  simple  features 
the  little  aristocratic  state,  where  neither  the  king  nor  the  slave 
is  far  removed  from  the  mass  of  freemen  ;  by  comparing  the 
size  of  the  Greek  states  with  that  of  Egypt  or  Assyria,  he  will 
readily  see  that  in  a  small  state  the  king  cannot  easily  remove 
himself  from  the  very  presence  of  the  people  and  the  consequent 
pressure  of  their  opinions  in  regard  to  his  actions  ;  while  such  a 
small  state  cannot  well  enrich  itself  nor  its  king  by  any  other 
means  than  those  of  honest  labor,  since  it  cannot  seize  upon 
the  wealth  acquired  by  larger  powers.  Special  pains  should  be 
taken  that  the  Agora,  or  General  Assembly,  is  understood  as  the 
actual  democratic  meeting  of  all  adult  freemen  in  the  market- 
place, on  any  occasion  when  the  presence  of  the  whole  people  is 
required,  either  to  give  notice  of  an  expedition  or  a  danger  or 
to  announce  a  law  ;  the  imagination  should  be  stimulated  to  con- 
ceive clearly  of  a  state  of  affairs  where  all  common  news  comes 
by  hearsay,  and  all  common  interests  must  be  discussed  by  word 
of  mouth  ;  in  short,  of  days  when  there  was  neither  a  newspaper, 
a  telegraph,  nor  a  post-office.  The  importance  of  the  Agora  as 
the  safeguard  of  liberty  will  then  appear  double,  and  it  will  be 
clearly  perceived  that  it  was  the  oi-gan  of  public  opinion.  The 
point  may  be  illustrated  by  the  meeting  of  boys  in  the  play- 
ground to  talk  over  some  common  project  or  expedition. 

In  discussing  amusements,  great  stress  should  be  laid  on  their 
admirable  effect  in  developing  physical  and  artistic  excellence. 

In  studying  religious  characteristics,  note  that  the  gods  are 
like  men :  (a)  Physically  ;  they  have  the  parts  of  the  human 
body,  and  feel  physical  needs,  {h)  Emotionally ;  they  hate, 
;^ear,  love,  (c)  Socially  ;  they  also  live  in  the  patriarchal  st3'le. 
la  other  words,  the  Greek  gods  are  of  the  complete  anthro- 


STUDY    OF   HISTORIC   GREECE.  13 

pomorphic  type.  Although  itself  below  the  more  spiritual  and 
ideal  type  of  the  Hebrew  Deity,  it  may  be  well  to  note  in 
passing  its  superiority  to  the  conceptions  of  Egypt  or  Assyria 
in  its  influence  on  human  life.  So  far  as  possible,  the  joyous 
nature  of  the  worship,  and  its  influence  on  the  temper  of  the 
people,  should  be  emphasized. 

In  general,  the  Greek  migrations  are  southward  and  east- 
ward ;  the  early  movement  toward  Thessaly  is  perhaps  explained 
by  its  comparative  size  and  fertility. 

Topics  and  Questions  for  Examinations  and  Essays. —  What 
is  the  historic  value  of  the  Homeric  poems  ?  A  comparison  of  Homeric 
Greece  and  of  the  Jews  in  patriarchal  times  (Abraham  and  Ulysses) . 
What  was  the  probable,  and  what  was  the  certain,  influence  of  the 
Trojan  War  on  civilization?  What  traces  of  nature-worship  in  the 
Greek  mythology,  and  what  evidences  of  divine  power  seen  in  each  of 
the  natural  objects  thought  to  be  under  special  divine  dominion  ?  A 
scene  at  the  Lion-gate  of  Mycenae,  1000  b.c.  Agamemnon's  departure 
from  Mycenae.  What  points  of  resemblance  between  the  Greek  and 
Jewish  faith  ?    What  fundamental  difference  ? 


B.   STUDY  OF  HISTORIO  GREECE,  OR  HELLAS,  776-500. 

The  map,  pp.  44,  45,  at  once  reveals  that  the  Greeks 
were  of  essentially  maritime  habit,  settling  the  coasts  of  every 
richly  productive  land  within  their  reach,  while  their  locations 
at  river-mouths  and  on  easily  accessible  shores  show  that  their 
colonies  were  in  reality  trading-posts.  The  varied  produc- 
tions of  the  Greek  lands  and  the  varied  occupations  of  the 
Greek  people  encouraged  the  calling  of  the  merchant  and 
sailor,  while  at  the  same  time  it  scattered  the  Greeks  here  and 
there  along  the  fertile  Mediterranean  coasts,  preventing  any. 
strong  political  or  territorial  unity,  but  making  them  a  strong 
civilizing  force  among  the  barbarous  nations. 


14  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

The  whole  study  on  p.  47  should  be  treated  very  freely  and 
conversationally,  a  number  of  the  questions  admitting  of  more 
than  one  answer.  Here,  if  he  has  not  done  so  before,  the 
teacher  should  impress  upon  the  pupils  that,  to  early  traders, 
the  water-ways  are  by  far  the  easiest,  cheapest,  and  safest 
roads  for  travel  and  commerce. 

So  far  as  it  is  desirable  to  summarize  the  answers  to  these 
questions,  they  will  be  found  embodied  in  the  following  general 
tabular  view  of  B.  1  :  — 

GENERAL   HELLENIC  DEVELOPMENT,  776-4%. 

Organizations  and  Institutdons  of  Period. 

Colonies :  trading-posts,  imited  to  mother-cities  by  kinship  and 

worship. 
Aristocratic  tribal  states :  examples,  Sparta,  Attica ;  bonds  of 

union,  common  descent  (kinship)  and  worship. 
Olympic  games,^  forming  the  centre  of  a  loose  religious  Hel- 
lenic union  (c/.  Delphi). 
CharacteristicB  of  Period. 

Growth  of  colonies  and  commerce 

about  Black  Sea  and  Bosphorus  {Byzantium). 
about  iEgean. 

in  Magna  Graecia  {Syracuse). 
Tendencies  to  Hellenic  union  seen  in 
religion : 

games,  —  Olympic,  Pythian,  Nemean,  etc. 
Delphic  Oracle, 
amphictyonies. 
sacred  war. 
language  and  literature  ^  (Homer). 

^  In  reckoning  Olympiads,  it  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  first  Olym- 
piad does  not  count  for  four  years ;  and  so,  to  find  the  date  of  the  fifteenth 
Olympiad,  one  must  multiply  four  by  fourteen,  instead  of  by  fifteen,  and 
subtract  the  result  from  776  b.c. 

2  If  the  pupils  do  not  think  of  this,  it  may  be  well  to  remind  them  that 
all  outsiders  were  called  by  the  Greeks  "  Barbarians,'*  that  is,  men  who 
"  babble/'  or  speak  so  that  they  cannot  be  understood.  Tell  them,  too,  that 
Homer  web  recited  and  sung  in  every  city  and  village  of  Greece. 


STUDY   OF   HISTORIC   GREECE.  15 

Tendency  to  Spartan  leadership  seen  in 

Olympic  games. 

Spartan  conquests. 

Lydian  request  for  Spartan  alliance. 
Revolt  against  oligarchy,  ending  in  "  tyranny." 
Intellectual,  industrial,  and  artistic  impulse 

seen  in 

poetry  (lyric). 

science  {philosophy). 

architecture  and  sculpture. 

working  in  metal,  stone,  clay, 
developing  along  the  lines  of  Greek  life  and  history,  .•. 

original  and  national. 
encouraged  by 

religion. 

the  "  Tyrants." 
General  diffusion  of  excellence 

throughout  Greek  settlements  of  Asia  Minor  and  the 

Islands, 
among  all  free  citizens. 
Strong  influence  of  religion  seen  in 
Delphic  Oracle, 
games. 

art  and  literature, 
founding  of  colonies. 
Ideals  of  the  period  : 
the  gentleman. 

the  athlete  (victor  at  Olympia). 
the  good  and  honored  citizen, 
the  poet,  singer,  and  thinker. 
Type  of  civilization,  —  commercial,  intellectual,  artistic. 

All  these  points  might  also  be  summarized  under  the  head- 
ings, political,  social,  religious,  etc.,  and  it  might  be  well  to 
ask  the  students  so  to  arrange  the  various  points  as  an  exercise 
in  classification. 

In  general,  it  should  be  strongly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of 
the  pupil  that  the  bonds  of  Greek  union  during  this  period 
were  worship  and  kinship ;  that  these  bonds  not  only  united 
them  in  tribes,  classes,  cities,  and  araphictyonies,  but  that  they 


16  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

separated  them  from  barbarians,  the  men  of  foreign  speech 
and  faith  ;  nor  is  it  perhaps  unsafe  to  follow  Curtius  in  assigning 
great  importance  to  the  cohesive  force  exercised  by  the  Delphic 
Oracle,  which  was  a  centre  of  knowledge  as  well  as  of  faith. 

But  no  cohesive  force  could  stand  against  the  strength  of 
local  interests.  It  will  be  noted  through  this  whole  time  that 
each  little  state,  centred  in  its  own  little  city,  acted  for  itself, 
fought  for  itself,  and  founded  its  own  colonies  ;  Sparta  alone 
sometimes  interfered  in  general  Greek  affairs,  and  thus  asserted 
her  superior  strength. 

It  will  be  readily  perceived  that  all  the  tendencies  and  organ- 
izations of  this  period  followed  naturally  from  those  of  the 
Homeric  age,  with  a  strengthening  of  the  commercial,  relig- 
ious, and  intellectual  spirit.  The  heroes  of  the  Trojan  War 
and  the  Argonautic  Expedition  were  the  precursors  of  the 
adventurous  traders  and  colonists ;  and  the  men  who  never 
fought  a  battle  but  with  the  favor  of  the  gods,  the  ancestors  of 
those  who  founded  their  colonies  by  the  advice  of  Apollo. 

B.  II.  1.  SPARTA,  776-490  B.C. 
Political  Organization. 

In  form  :  a  limited  monarchy. 

In  reality :  an  oligarchic  democracy,  bound  together  by  religion, 
kinship,  and  training. 
Social  Organization. 

For  {Spartans :   communistic,  and  entirely  subordinate  to  the 
state  and  the  army. 
Results  of  the  Lycurgan  Organization  and  Institutions. 
Political : 

Spartan  leadership  in  Greece  for  that  period. 
Social : 

Subordination  of  the  individual  and  the  family  to  the  state. 
Importance  and  influence  of  women. 
Simplicity,  and  even  rudeness  of  manners. 
Personal : 

Scorn  of  any  labor  other  than  military. 

High  physical  development,  —  strength  and  l>eauty. 

Spai'tan  ideal,  —  the  warrior,  athlete,  and  patriot. 


STUDY   OF    HISTORIC  GREECE.  17 

111  the  above  study,  the  phrase,  "  oligarchic  democracy," 
may  seem  hke  a  gemiine  "  Irish  bull,"  nor  cau  I  say  that  I  at 
all  approve  of  it,  since  it  is  only  clear  to  one  who  knows  what 
it  means.  What  it  does  mean  is  this,  —  that,  while  the  Spar- 
tan body  within  itself  was  as  pure  a  working  democracy'  as  the 
world  has  ever  seen,  yet,  since  that  bod}'  was  limited  in  num- 
ber, and  ruled  over  a  large  population  of  Laconians,  who  had 
absolutely  no  share  in  the  government,  it  was,  as  regarded 
these  Laconians,  an  oligarchy ;  and  throughout  the  Greek  his- 
tory it  will  be  seen  that  the  Spartan  spirit  and  the  Spartan 
sympath}^  is  aristocratic.  Even  in  this  period,  we  find  her 
always  opposed  to  the  man  of  the  people,  the  "  Tyrant." 

B.  II.  2.  ATHENS,  776-490  B.C. 

Before  Solon,  776-594  B.C. 

Political  organization : 

Aristocracy  of  clan-elders  (Eupatrids),  distinguished  from 
other  tribesmen  by  birth  and  worship. 
Social  organization : 

Tribal,  the  people  bound  together  by  kinship  and  wor- 
ship into 

families,  forming 
clans,  in  turn  forming 
brotherhoods,  in  turn  forming 
Four  Ionic  Tribes,  political  units  of  the  City-state. 
[N.B.  —  Tribesmen  alone  form  the  state.] 
Changes  of  Solon,  594  B.C. 
In  organization : 

Aristocracy  of  birth  changed  to  a  timocracy;   that  is, 
wealthy  as  well  as  high-born  tribesmen  admitted 
to  power. 
Community  of  worship  given  to  all  tribesmen. 
Slavery  for  tribesmen  abolished. 
Publicity  and  sacredness  of  common  law. 
In  tendency : 

Development  of  equality. 
Limitation  of  individual  by  the  state. 
Liberation  of  individual  from  family. 


18  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Athens.  —  Continued. 

Recognition  of  value  of  wealth  and  industry. 
Encouragement  of  labor  and  trade. 
Development  of  unity  and  freedom  by 

loosening  of  the  fixed  bonds  of  birth, 
extension  of  a  common  worship. 
The  PisiBtratid  Tyranny  (Demagogism). 

Organized  according  to  forms  of  Solon's  constitution. 
Based  on 

local  jealousies  of  Mountain,  Plain,  and  Shore.^ 
personality  of  Pisistratus,  — 
eloquence, 
geniality, 
tact  and  intellect, 
ignorance,  sympathy,  and  superstition  of  the  multitude, 
wealth  of  Pisistratus. 
hired  military  forces. 
Justified  by 

public  improvements  in 
roads, 
trade, 
patronage  of  art,  science,  poetry. 
Caused  to  fall  by 

abuse  of  the  tyrannical  power, 
reaction  against  it. 
ambition  of  the  Alcma^onids. 
opposition  of  Delphi  and  Sparta. 
Changes  of  Clisthenes. 

In  organization  (^Democracy)  : 

The  kinship  bond  abolished  in  politics. ^ 
The  tribe  of  demesmen  replaces  that  of  kinsmen  in  politics. 
The  deme,  or  parish,  instead  of  the  family,  becomes  the 
fundamental  unit,  its  men  united  by  a  common 
residence  and  a  common  worship. 
All  free  inhabitants  become  citizens. 

^  The  local  jealousies,  of  course,  were  strong,  because  of  local  interests ; 
to  this  was  added,  in  the  case  of  the  Mountaineers,  the  desperation  of  poor 
men  who  have  nothing  to  lose. 

2  In  social  life,  of  course  the  kinship  bond  always  remains;  and  in 
Greece  probably,  as  well  as  elsewhere,  the  "first  families"  had  many 
things  after  "  their  way." 


STUDY   OF   HISTORIC   GREECE.  19 

tendency : 

Development  of  democracy. 
Development  of  unity  by 

introduction  of  new  worships, 
abolition  of  distinctions  of  birth  between  loniang 
and  Perioeki. 
General  Character  of  Athenian  History,  776-490  B.C. 

Constant  changes  toward  equality,  democracy,  and  unity. 
Parallelism  of  political,  social,  and  religious  distinctions. 
Widening  distribution  of  political  power. 
Growth  of  the  state  in  size,  numbers,  and  interests. 
Gradual  liberation  of  individuals. 

In  this,  the  pupil  meets  with  his  first  serious  study  of  consti- 
tutional development,  and  the  teacher  should  by  no  means  be- 
grudge the  time  necessary  to  a  complete  understanding  of  each 
stage.  The  student  must  have  clearly  in  mind  that  before  the 
time  of  Clisthenes  the  four  Ionic  tribes  form  the  Athenian 
state,  without  reference  to  the  Metics,  that  the  changes  of 
Solon  apply  simply  to  Ionic  tribesmen,  and  that  in  every 
development  of  the  constitution  the  place  and  form  of  the  old 
Greek  bonds  of  union,  kinship  and  faith,  are  still  respected, 
though  constantl}^  enlarged  and  loosened,  while  of  these  two 
the  common  worship  is  the  stronger  and  gives  presumptive 
evidence  of  common  kin.  While  these  ideas  are  in  reality 
simple,  yet  their  novelty  makes  them  at  first  hard  to  "  sense," 
and  time  is  the  one  element  necessary  to  their  understanding. 
Thorough  work  here  will  save  time  in  all  the  following  constitu- 
tional studies. 

In  Pisistratus,  we  have  a  study  of  that  interesting  phenome- 
non, the  "man  of  the  people"  turned  "Tyrant";  the  most 
important  point  to  discuss  is  the  relation  between  the  Tyrant, 
the  ignorant  mass,  and  the  constitutional  form ;  and  it  should 
be  clearly  understood  that  a  Tyrant  of  this  type  alvrays  finds 
his  counterpart  in  the  ignorance  or  stupidity  of  his  supporters, 
and  that  constitutional  forms  avail  little  without  general  intelli- 
gence to  use  them.^     To  come  no  closer  home,  it  will  be  well  to 

1  "  I  hold  all  Rome  guilty  of  this  Nero."  —  ThorndaU. 


20  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

cite  the  parallel  case  of  Napoleon  III.  The  full-grown  Tyrant, 
however,  is  a  political  teacher,  and  he  never  appeared  twice  in 
the  same  Greek  state.  In  Athens,  he  called  out  the  institution 
of  ostracism,  as  local  party  conflicts  forced  into  the  constitu- 
tion the  separation  of  the  demes  of  the  same  tribe. 

In  the  constitution  of  Clisthenes  we  meet  with  the  most 
radical  constitutional  change  known  to  antiquity.  Before  his 
time,  the  men  born  into  the  same  clan  belonged  together,  no 
matter  where  they  dwelt ;  unity  existed  alone  in  faith  and 
blood-relationship.  But  he  drew  neighbors  together  into  the 
same  parish,  so  that  men  who  dwelt  together  irrespective  of 
blood-relationship  should  be  called  by  a  common  name  and 
worship  at  a  common  shrine.  In  other  words,  he  made  the 
land,  the  common  father-land^  the  bond  of  unity.  Though  this 
was  his  fundamental  change,  he  dared  not  ignore  the  old  Greek 
bonds,  and  so  gave  to  each  of  his  new  tribes,  mixed  of 
lonians  and  Metics,  a  local  hero  for  common  worship,  from 
whom  it  took  its  tribal  name,  as  if  in  direct  descent.  From 
this  time  on,  then,  we  find  Ionian  and  Ionic  merged  in  the 
larger  names  of  Athenian  and  Attic. 

Before  the  time  of  Solon  the  ''Homeric  Assembly  of 
Elders  "  had  crowded  out  of  power  both  the  King  and  the  body 
of  freemen  ;  from  Solon's  time  power  is  turned  more  and  more 
into  the  channels  of  the  *'  agora."  But  throughout  the  consti- 
tutional development,  we  never  lose  sight  of  the  primitive 
Homeric  organization  ;  the  magistrates  replace  the  King,  the 
Areopagus  and  the  Senates  replace  the  Assembly  of  Elders ; 
while  the  market-place  meeting  grows  into  a  thoroughly  com- 
pacted Ecclesia,  with  large  and  definite  powers. 

Snggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  landing 
of  the  Greeks  in  Illyria.  Journal  of  a  Greek  sailing  from  Athens  to 
Phasis.  The  importance  of  Byzantium.  Which  most  strongly  unites 
men,  religion  or  commerce,  and  why?  Why  is  common  speech  a 
bond  of  union?  In  what  ways  were  the  various  contemporaneous 
nations  and  tribes  real  barbarians  compared  with  the  Greeks,  776- 
500  B.C.  ?    A  day  at  Olympia.    Letter  of  a  Milesian  merchant  from 


STUDY   ON  PERSIAN   WARS. 


21 


Delphi.  Was  the  Greek  Tyrant  a  good  or  an  evil?  (Debate.)  By 
what  marks  would  you  have  known  yourself  in  a  Greek  state  had 
you  been  suddenly  placed  in  Athens,  510  B.C.,  not  knowing  the 
language?  What  geographical  fact  accounted  for  the  political  con- 
figuration of  Greece  and  its  leading  business  interest?  How  far  is 
Sparta  a  suggestive  model  ?  Dialogue  between  a  Spartan  and  Athe- 
nian. The  civilizing  forces  at  work,  600  B.C.  What  would  have 
been  the  fate  of  Solon  and  Clisthenes  respectively,  had  they  changed 
places  with  each  other  in  time,  but  not  in  principles?  What  lesson 
can  we  Americans  draw  from  the  story  of  Pisistratus  ? 


C.   STUDY  ON  PEESIAN  WAES,  490-479  B.O. 

The  study  on  p.  72  is  so  exceedingly  easy  that  it  may  be  well 
simply  to  make  an  informal  conversation  of  it,  without  asking 
for  any  home  study  upon  it.  Its  results,  together  with  those  of 
studies  on  pp.  76,  80,  82,  85,  87,  may  be  summarized  some- 
thing as  follows :  — 

GENERAL  COMPARISON   OF  ANTAGONISTS. 


Hellenic. 

Persian. 

Territory  is 

maritime,     colonial,     scat- 

agricultural, continental,  com- 

tered, with  natural  divi- 

pact,  with   arbitrary   divi- 

sions. 

sions. 

Population  is 

of    one    race,    speech,   and 

mixed  of  many  races,  tongues. 

faith. 

and  faiths. 

Civilization  is 

Occidental ;  that  is,  diffused. 

Oriental ;  that  is,  centralized, 
exclusive. 

Governments 

democracy  and  local  inde- 

despotism, centralization. 

tend  to 

pendence. 

Soldiers  are 

citizens    fighting   for   their 

subjects  fighting  to  gain  more 

own  possessions  and  inde- 

wealth for  their  king. 

pendence. 

[N.  B.  —  This  table  can  only  be  started  after  the  study  on  p.  72  ;  it 
must  be  extended  and  completed  by  means  of  the  study  on  p.  76, 
where  additional  points  are  made.    At  its  close,  the  clear  impression 


22  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

should  be  left  on  the  mind  of  the  pupil  that  the  Persian  empire  was 
an  enormous  heterogeneous  compound,  massed  together  by  conquerors 
as  a  great  estate,  from  which  to  draw  revenues  and  forces  for  their 
private  ends ;  while  Greece,  or  Hellas,  was  a  loose  union  of  citizen- 
communities,  bound  together  by  common  sympathies  and  modes  of 
thought,  but  full  of  independent,  individual  life,  each  community 
existing  and  gathering  resources  for  its  own  citizens.] 

FIRST  PERSIAN  WAR. 

Causes  of  the  "War. 

Desire  of  Darius  for  wealth  of  Naxos  and  Athens. 
Desire  of  Darius  to  punish  Athens. 
Desire  of  Hippias  for  restoration  to  power. 
Independence  of  Athens. 

Important  Events  of  the  War. 

Ionian  revolt,  and  Athenian  alliance  with  it. 

Persian  invasion  of  Greece. 

Battle  of  Marathon,  490  b.c,  won  by  Miltiades. 

10,000  Greeks  (Athenians)  conquer  100,000  Persians. 
Retreat  of  Persians ;  end  of  first  war. 

Character,  Relations,  £ind  Tendencies  of  the  Hellenes,  as  shown 
in  this  "War. 

General  tendency  to  democratic  governments,  seen  in 

Naxos. 

cities  of  Asia  Minor. 

Athens. 
Democracies  opposed  by 

aristocracies  (Naxos). 

tyrants  (Miletus,  Athens). 

Darius  (Ionian  revolt). 
Leadership  of  Sparta  and  Athens  among  the  Greeks. 
Love  of  independence  (Sparta,  Athens,  Asia  Minor). 

Special  Athenian  Characteristics  displayed. 

Generous  sympathy  with  Greece. 
Unselfish  patriotism  (conduct  of  generals). 
Unshrinking  courage. 

Special  Spartan  Character  shown. 

Strict  observance  of  law  (refusal  to  march). 


STUDY   ON   PERSIAN   WARS.  23 

INTERVAL   FROM   FIRST   TO   SECOND   PERSIAN   WARS, 
MARKED   BY  — 

Development  of  Athenian  Naval  Po-wer,  through 
wisdom  of  Themistocles. 
patriotism  of  the  Athenians, 
natural  advantages  of  Athenian  situation. 
Persian  Preparations  for  invading  Greece 
urged  on  by- 
Persian  desire  for  revenge. 
Pisistratid  ambition, 
marked  by 

union  of  great  masses  under  single  lead, 
lack  of  any  inspiration  of  patriotism, 
difficulty  of  provisioning. 
Attempted  Union  of  Hellenes,  incomplete  through 
jealousy  (Syracuse,  Argos). 
fear  (Corcyra). 
Nobility  of  Athenian  Spirit,  shown  in 

patriotism  for  all  Hellas  (Pan-Hellenism), 
generosity  of  Themistokles  to  Aristeides. 
hoping  against  hope,  —  courage  in  extremity. 

SECOND    PERSIAN   WAR. 

[Add  to  the  table  of  "  Comparison  of  Antagonists  "  the  point  of 
"  Spirit,"  —  the  Hellenic  spirit  being  that  of  independence,  giving 
strength ;  the  Persian,  that  of  servility  and  fear,  producing  weakness.] 

Causes  of  "War  (see  second  point  under  Interval). 
Critical  Battles  of  the  War. 

Thermopylae  (hero  Leonidas). 
Salarais  (hero  Themistocles). 
Platsea  and  Mycale. 
Character  displayed  in  this  "War,  by  — 
Spartans  under  Leonidas : 
Dogged  courage. 

Absolute  obedience  to  law,  and  regard  for  religion. 
Individual  independence  of  a  leader. 
Spartans  in  the  fleet : 

Caution  and  selfishness. 


24  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HLSTORY. 

Second  Persian  War.  —  Continued. 

Athenians  (including  Themistocles  and  Aristides): 
Regard  for  the  gods. 
Good  judgment  (statesmanship). 
Strategy  (Themistocles). 
Unselfish  patriotism  (Aristides,  Plataea). 
Pan-Hellenic  interest. 
Greeks  in  general : 

Regard  for  the  gods. 

Love  of  independence. 

Tendencies  to  local  and  party  jealousies. 

Regard  for  Sparta  and  Athens  as  leaders. 

Consciously  united  by 

religion  (Delphi). 

speech. 

blood. 
Led  by  persuasion. 
Persian  hosts  : 

Cowardice. 

Dependence  on  leaders  and  on  fear  (scourge). 

In  the  previous  studies,  we  have  seen  the  development  of  the 
Spartan  and  Athenian  constitutions  into  their  completed  forms ; 
in  the  Persian  wars,  we  see  these  completed  forms  at  work, 
acting  in  large  and  various  circumstances.  Up  to  this  point,  the 
aim  of  our  work  has  been  thoroughly  to  understand  forms  ;  now 
it  must  be  thoroughly  to  feel  the  spirit,  the  life  which  animates 
them  ;  furthermore,  to  note  how  far  the}^  meet,  and  when  they 
fail  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  hour.  Perhaps  beyond  all  else,  it 
should  be  noted  that  both  Athenian  and  Spartan  constitutions 
were  good  primarily  because  they  were  worked,  b}'  a  mass  in- 
deed, but  by  a  mass  composed  of  intelligent,  self-reliant,  patriotic 
individuals.  We  admire  the  heroism  of  the  Spartans  at  Thermo- 
pylae, the  patriotism  of  the  Athenians  in  voting  that  their  pub- 
lic moneys  should  be  expended  in  a  fleet,  and  again  and  again 
we  marvel  at  the  excellent  judgment  and  courage  shown  in  the 
decisions  of  the  Greek  assemblies  ;  but  we  must  always  remind 
the  pupil  that  while  the  free  constitution  called  forth  the  powers 
of  the  citizen,  the  intelligence  of  the  citizen  gave  the  free  con- 


STUDY  ON  PERSIAN  WARS.  25 

stitution  power.  To  enforce  the  point,  let  the  student  but  once 
imagine  that  the  Athenian  Ecclesia  was  composed  of  ignorant, 
selfish  men,  many  of  them  resident  in  Attica  only  for  a  year 
or  two,  and  he  will  see  at  once  that  under  such  circumstances, 
the  free  constitution,  acting  in  a  time  of  war  and  danger,  when 
the  state  demands  the  highest  courage  and  the  greatest  sacri- 
fices, may  become  a  source  of  positive  injury.  Further,  let  him 
note  that  when  the  Clisthenean  arrangement  of  Strategi  was 
tested  for  the  first  time  at  Marathon,  this  part  of  the  constitu- 
tion would  have  failed  entirely  had  it  not  been  for  the  generosity 
of  Aristides  and  his  companions,  joined  to  the  wisdom  and 
daring  of  Miltiades.  Again,  the  advantage  which  the  ostracism 
gave,  in  uniting  the  forces  of  the  state  under  a  single  lead, 
depended  for  its  value  on  the  good  sense  of  each  Athenian 
citizen  and  his  readiness  to  submit  to  law.  Other  instances  will 
be  seen  throughout  the  period.  In  short,  the  working  power 
of  the  Greek  constitutions  depended  on  the  fact  that  they  were 
worked  by  men,  quick-witted,  generous-hearted;  every  unit 
counted  one.  Throughout  the  study  it  must  be  kept  in  mind 
that  the  whole  theory  of  Greek  political  life  was,  that  persua- 
sion, the  moving  of  men's  thoughts  and  feelings  by  reasons  and 
motives,  is  the  only  legitimate  force  by  which  either  men  or 
measures  are  lifted  into  leadership. 

Although  during  the  Persian  wars,  the  individuality  of  the 
various  states  stood  strongly  forth  in  distinct  and  local  colors, 
yet  it  is  to  this  period  that  we  owe  the  first  appearance  of  that 
political  form  so  interesting  to  all  Americans,  —  the  union  of 
independent  states  for  concerted  action  in  affairs  of  common 
interest.  The  Amphictyonies  were  religious  in  their  motive, 
and  the  old  Homeric  league  of  chiefs  in  the  Trojan  war  was 
perhaps  too  unconscious  and  informal  to  be  reckoned  as  politi- 
cal. But  during  the  Persian  wars,  we  find  the  Greek  states, 
under  the  urging  power  of  Athens,  striving,  though  weakly  and 
with  ill-success,  to  form  a  true  Pan-Hellenic  union  against  the 
Barbarian.  The  want  of  centralization  must  have  been  strongly 
felt  when  fighting  against  a  foe,  whose  greatest  strength  lay  in 


26  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

his  ability  to  handle  masses  simply  and  easily  from  an  absolute, 
though  despotic  centre.  The  value  of  this  power  of  centralized 
force  in  time  of  war  should  be  as  thoroughly  understood  as  cir- 
cumstances permit,  and  receives  fine  illustrations  from  the  risks 
which  the  Greeks  ran  from  disunion  in  the  second  Persian  war, 
notably  at  Salamis.  In  this  power  lies  the  strength  of  despot- 
isms ;  in  its  lack,  the  weakness  of  free  governments,  unless  for 
a  time  they  know  how  to  subject  and  consolidate  themselves 
under  a  single  will.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  also,  in  this  con- 
nection, that  Delphi  became  a  more  thoroughly  acknowledged 
centre  of  Greek  affairs,  and  in  some  cases  was  even  recog- 
nized as  able  to  hold  the  various  states  responsible  for  a  com- 
mon agreement. 

At  the  close  of  the  whole  study  on  the  Persian  wars  it  will 
be  well  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  great  deeds,  that 
the  great  results  of  this  period,  were  due  entirely  to  moral  and 
intellectual  forces ;  that  the  disastrous  and  complete  defeat 
suffered  by  the  Greeks  at  Thermopylae  became  through  its 
moral  grandeur,  not  only  a  glory  but  an  inspiration ;  and  that 
the  one  state  in  Greece  which  displayed  these  qualities  in  the 
highest  degree,  namely  Athens,  not  only  deserved  the  leader- 
ship of  the  Hellenes,  but  obtained  it. 

The  geographical  advantages  of  Thermopyhne  and  Salamis  are 
in  realit}'  the  same,  since  on  the  one  hand  the  narrowness  of  the 
mountain-pass,  and  on  the  other,  the  narrowness  of  the  straits, 
enabled  a  few  brave  men  to  keep  at  bay  a  multitude,  whom  they 
could  only  encounter  a  few  at  a  time. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  TATork. — It  has  always 
been  my  habit,  in  reaching  this  point  in  the  work,  to  give  the  pupils  a 
chance  to  try  their  own  hand  at  the  making  of  a  tabulated  summary. 
According  to  the  ability  and  experience  of  the  class,  they  can  either 
be  allowed  to  make  it  without  any  help  or  suggestion  on  the  part  of 
the  teacher,  or  the  principal  headings  may  be  dictated  to  them  to  fill 
out.  In  either  case,  the  teacher  should  be  exceedingly  careful  not  to 
hold  his  students  to  any  rigid  form,  but  to  allow  as  wide  differences 
of  arrangement  as  the  "  logic  of  events  "  allows.  The  following  topics 
and  questions  are  suggestive :  — 


STUDY   ON  THE   ATHENIAN   LEADERSHIP.  27 

What  changes  did  the  Persian  wars  produce  in  Hellas  ?  Were  they 
a  good  or  an  evil?  Was  Aristeides  or  Themistokles  the  better 
citizen  ?  (Debate.)  The  military  strength  of  goodness,  as  illustrated 
in  these  wars.  Why  is  courage  a  cardinal  virtue  ?  Persia  v.  Greece. 
The  citizen  v.  the  subject.  The  comparative  influence  of  the  aims  of 
glory  and  wealth  on  character.  The  story  of  a  soldier  at  Marathon ; 
at  Thermopylae.  "I  perceive  that,  in  all  things,  ye  are  too  super- 
stitious." Journal  of  an  Athenian  citizen,  480-479  B.C.  Why  should 
the  Greeks  call  ^^ Persuasion''  a  goddess?  The  Greek  victory  at 
Thermopylae. 


D.   STUDY  ON  THE  ATHENIAN  LEADEESHIP;  AGE  OF 
PEEICLES;  479-431. 

In  dealing  with  the  age  of  Pericles,  it  is  generally  too  much 
ignored  that  we  are  studying,  after  all,  the  development  of 
Athens  alone ;  and  while  for  the  time  being  it  seems  to  concen- 
trate all  Hellenic  history  within  its  own  walls,  yet  it  is  but  a 
single  city  among  the  Greeks.  Hence,  in  the  following  tabula- 
tion, it  has  seemed  best  to  emphasize  this  fact  by  considering 
Hellas  in  general,  as  well  as  Athens.  No  part  of  this  summary 
should  be  given  until  all  the  work  on  the  Athenian  Leadership 
has  been  discussed  ;  and  if  the  students  have  sufficient  ability,  it 
may  be  well  here  also  to  ask  them  to  tabulate  their  own  results, 

THE  ATHENIAN  LEADERSHIP;   AGE  OF  PERICLES. 

Organization  of 

Hellas  in  general : 

Local  self-governing  cities,  with  attempts  at  Hellenic  union 
in  Confederacy  of  Delos  (maritime  dominion), 
in  Spartan  leadership  (continental  dominion). 
Athens ; 

Completed  democracy  at  home,  with  tendencies  to  dema- 

gogism. 
Imperialism  abroad,  under  lead  of 
Cimon. 
Pericles. 


28  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  Athenian  Leadership. —  Continued. 
Characteristics  of  Period  in 

Hellas  in  general : 

Party  strife  within  cities. 

Aristocrats  favored  by  Sparta. 

Democrats  favored  by  Athens. 
Jealousy  of  cities,  notably  of  Athens,  leading  to 

Peloponnesian  War. 
Development  of  Athenian  leadership  by 

superior  naval  force- 
Pan-Hellenic  spirit. 

literary  and  artistic  supremacy. 
Development  of  Athenian  empire  by 

neglect  and  indiiference  of  allies. 

Athenian  ambition  and  strength. 
Athens : 

Development  of  trade  and  wealth. 

Development  of  arts,  in  original  (Greek)  directions. 

Sculpture       >  Parthenon. 
Architecture  > 
Drama,  — 

^schylus. 
Sophocles. 
Euripides. 
General  intelligence  and  patriotism  shown  in 
use  of  public  nioney  (Parthenon), 
character  of  drama  and  popular  amusements, 
leading  men  of  the  state,  — 
Aristides. 
Cimon. 
Pericles. 
Development  of  philosophy,  —  natural  science,  mentai 

and  moral  philosophy,  theology. 
Growth  and  influence  of  oratory. 
Ideals, — statesman  and  general,  poet,  philosopher,  orator, 

good  citizen ;  or 
Ideal  character,  —  cultured,    brave,    genial,    patriotic, 

eloquent. 
Production    of    great    men,  —  Pericles,   Socrates,  Aris- 
tides, etc. 


STUDY  ON  THE  ATHENIAN  LEADERSHIP.      29 

Existence  of  religious  parties,  — 

Liberal  thinkers  (Socrates). 

Orthodox  Greeks  (his  prosecutors) ;  or 
Growth  of  free  thought,  endangering  the  state,  — 

Trial  of  Socrates. 

The  instant  the  Persian  wars  are  over,  we  find  that  the  Hel- 
lenic world  has  widened,  that  its  movements  are  larger,  its 
wars  and  alliances  farther-reaching  than  before.  This  is  seen 
at  once  in  the  feeling  that  Sestos  and  Byzantinm  are  keys  to  the 
Greek  world,  and  as  such  should  be  so  held  by  Greeks  as  to 
prevent  any  repetition  of  the  invasions  of  Darius  and  Xerxes. 
But  it  is  seen  most  largely  in  the  fact  that  from  this  time  on, 
the  Greek  cities  tend  to  appear  in  groups,  under  the  lead  of  one 
or  another.  During  this  period,  of  course,  it  was  the  Athenian 
group  that  led  ;  in  the  beginning,  the  Confederacy  of  Delos  was  a 
free  league  of  the  older  Greek  type,  in  which  Athens  was  simply 
the  first  among  equals  ;  but  a  most  noteworthy  change  soon  oc- 
curred, in  that  the  chief  bond  of  union  became  that  of  a  common 
interest.  Again,  this  league  was  formed,  not  to  meet  a  special 
crisis,  but  to  carry  out  a  settled  purpose  of  conscious  Hellenic 
union  ;  from  this  point  of  view,  it  was  necessary  that  the  members 
should  be  held  responsible  to  some  single  member,  or  some  cen- 
tral body.  Hence,  after  the  treasury  was  transferred  to  Athens, 
and  the  allies  gradually  allowed  themselves  to  pay  a  money-tax, 
instead  of  performing  active  personal  duties,  we  find  them  be- 
coming uneasy,  and  the  stress  of  present  danger  over,  Athens 
was  compelled  to  hold  them  together  by  main  force.  Hence  the 
Greek  world  became  undermined  by  part}'  strife,  mutual  jeal- 
ousy, and  dislike,  until  the  "  logic  of  events  "  drove  the  states 
upon  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Yet,  while  the  Confederacy  of 
Delos  failed  of  achieving  a  Greek  political  union,  it  must  not 
be  forgotten  that  it  proved  eflfective  for  the  time  being,  in 
making  the  ^gean  thoroughly  Greek  throughout  its  coasts  and 
islandg.  Nor  must  it  be  forgotten  that  Athens,  at  this  time 
purely  democratic,  and  under  the  most  democratic  leaders,  was 
able  to  carry  out  a  foreign  polic}^  as  energetic  and  decisive  as 


30  STUDIES  IN  GEKEEAL  HISTORY. 

any  despot.  Only  to  the  mind  of  Pericles  does  it  seem  to  have 
occurred  that  it  might  be  possible  to  apply  the  representative 
principle  to  Greek  affairs  in  general,  and  so  to  form  a  demo- 
cratic union  of  states  as  well  as  one  of  citizens. 

While  the  list  of  great  men  and  works  shows  very  positively 
that  Athens  was  the  intellectual  centre  of  Hellas,  and  that  the 
Greek  genius  culminated  in  her  free  citizens,  it  also  shows  that 
the  whole  Greek  world  was  pervaded  by  the  same  intellectual 
and  artistic  impulses ;  and  that  these  impulses  always  played 
about  Greek  forms  and  themes,  so  that  the  Greek  history, 
mythology,  and  life,  became  the  inspiration  of  the  Greek  art. 

Not  only  does  a  state  express  its  own  peculiar  genius  by 
original  works  of  art,  but  also  in  living  characters.  Thus 
Leonidas  and  Themistocles  were  as  distinctively  products  of 
Greek  life,  as  the  Venus  of  Melos  or  the  Parthenon.  In  Athe- 
nian history  many  such  type-characters  have  been  preserved  for 
us  with  all  the  freshness  of  their  living  deeds  and  words  ;  and  of 
these,  two  predominate, — Pericles  and  Socrates.  Pericles  is, 
however,  more  typically  Athenian,  having  the  versatility  which 
enabled  him  to  be  at  once  general,  admiral,  orator,  statesman, 
scholar,  artist,  and  gentleman.  This  versatility  was  rendered 
effective  by  a  persistent  will,  a  diligent  use  of  time,  and  an 
upright  character.  His  mode  of  life  and  habits  of  thought,  his 
tastes  and  desires,  were  all  Athenian,  and  thus  he  was  chosen, 
year  after  year,  as  its  representative  man  by  the  Athenian 
P^cclesia.  He  had  moderation,  wit,  spirit,  and,  above  all, 
that  spherical  development  of  the  whole  man,  which  he  himself 
described  (p.  106)  as  typically  Athenian.  If  desired,  the 
teacher  may  make  some  such  tabulation  as  follows  for  the 
facts  concerning  Pericles :  — 

Advantages  of  Pericles  for  Leadership. 

Honorable  birth. 

Athenian  training. 

Dignity  of  manner. 

Versatile  tastes. 

Intellectual  and  oratorical  talent. 


STUDY  OK  THE  ATHENIAN  LEADEESHIP.      31 

Noble  character,  — 

upright. 

economical. 

firm. 

religious,  without  superstition. 

patriotic,  public-spirited. 

merciful,  kind. 
Means  used  by  Pericles  to  acquire  Leadership. 
Improvements  A«rrought  by  Pericles. 

Although  Socrates  did  not,  like  Pericles,  gather  up  in  his 
own  person  all  the  tendencies  and  influences  of  the  Athenian 
history  and  culture,  still  he  represents  the  culmination  of  one 
set  of  these  tendencies  and  influences,  and  probably  could  not 
have  lived  and  worked  sympathetically  with  so  large  and  enthu- 
siastic a  following  at  any  other  time  or  place.  The  long  course 
of  Greek  thought,  which  had  dealt  from  the  time  of  Homer 
with  the  larger  problems  of  the  destiny  of  man,  the  nature  of 
the  Deity,  and  the  relation  of  each  to  the  other  and  the  exter- 
nal world,  produced  its  consummate  flower  in  the  words  and 
character  of  Socrates.  Socrates  may  fairly  be  called  a  Pagan 
Christian,  since  we  find  in  him  not  only  the  belief  in  a  Deity 
who  rules  our  lives,  who  can  be  reached  by  prayer,  and  who 
rewards  the  good  and  punishes  the  evil-doer,  but  also  in  him 
we  find  the  hope  of  immortality,  and,  above  all,  the  clear  per- 
ception that  the  highest  and  most  worthy  life  of  man  is  spir- 
itual, and  that  purity,  truth,  and  obedience  to  the  gods  are  the 
noblest  aims  of  existence.  This  being  the  teaching  of  Socrates, 
it  has  often  seemed  strange  that  he  should  have  been  deemed 
worthy  of  death  by  the  Athenians.  But,  if  we  have  hitherto 
interpreted  Greek  history  aright,  the  pupil  will  readily  see  that, 
in  the  Athenian  state,  religious  unity  was  essential  to  political, 
and  that  any  freedom  of  thought  which  would  tend  to  free  men 
from  allegiance  to  that  oldest  and  strongest  of  Greek  political 
bonds,  the  tribal  and  national  faith,  must  seem  fatal  to  the 
firmness  of  the  state.  Here  we  have  a  grave  political  reason, 
which  must  have  seemed  plausible  to  the  Athenians  of  that 


S2  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

day,  for  the  condemnation  of  Socrates;  the  more  plausible, 
since  the  number  of  his  sympathizers,  judging  from  the  votes 
cast,  must  have  included  a  very  large  minority  of  the  Athenian 
citizens. 

It  may  be  said  that  this  study  of  Socrates  is  misplaced, 
since,  in  point  of  time,  he  belongs  in  the  period  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War.  This  fact  caused  me  to  hesitate  before  placing 
him  with  the  men  of  the  age  of  Pericles  ;  but,  on  the  whole,  he 
seemed  properly  to  belong  with  that  great  group,  each  of  which 
represents  the  culmination  of  a  long  ''stream  of  tendency." 
For  a  similar  reason,  though  more  doubtfully  applied,  the  ex- 
tracts from  Aristophanes  are  placed  among  those  illustrative  of 
this  age. 

The  extracts  from  the  dramatists,  taken  in  connection  with 
the  trial  of  Socrates  and  the  life  of  Pericles,  indicate  that,  in 
the  refined  Athens  of  that  age,  there  were  three  distinct  trends 
of  religious  thought :  that  of  orthodoxy,  or  the  holding  by  the 
material  myth  and  the  material  faith ;  that  of  skepticism  or 
doubt ;  and  that  of  philosophic  theology,  personified  in  Socrates. 
That  the  third  of  these  tendencies  was  regarded  as  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  second  may  be  easily  explained  by  the  fact 
that  a  positive,  earnest  belief  has  a  strength  which  mere  doubt 
can  never  possess. 

I  am  sorry  that  the  necessary  limit  set  at  present  to  the 
expense  of  a  text-book  has  made  it  impossible  to  illustrate  more 
fully  or  perfectly  the  culmination  of  Greek  art  into  sculpture 
and  architecture.  But  with  the  specimens  given,  it  may  be 
noted  that  its  products  were  simple,  natural,  well-proportioned 
and  harmonious,  full  of  living  repose. 

SuggeBtions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  great- 
ness of  Pericles.  The  greatness  of  Socrates.  What  can  the  Parthenon 
tell  us  of  Athens  ?  The  Periclean  v.  The  American.  Indifference  a 
political  vice  in  a  republic.  The  education  of  the  Ecclesia.  "In- 
spiration comes  only  to  the  disciplined";  illustrate  from  Athenian 
history  and  biography.  The  imperfections  of  the  Athenian  democracy. 
The  political  value  of  morality,  illustrated  from  Athenian  history  and 


STUDY  ON   PERIOD  431-338.  33 

biography.      The  visit  of  an  Egyptian  to  Athens  under   Pericles. 
Pericles  v.  Pisistratu6. 


E.  F.   STUDY  ON  PEKIOD  431-338. 

The  studies  on  pp.  115,  117,  and  118  may  be  summarized  as 
follows :  — 


PELOPONNESIAN  WAR,  AND   FALL   OF  GREECE   BEFORE 
MACEDON. 

Characteristics  of  Period. 

Dependence  of  individual  states  on  foreign  aid. 
Persia. 
Macedon. 
Succession  of  Hellenic  leaderships,  or  leagues,  under 

Athens,  —  caused  by  naval  and  intellectual  superiority. 
Sparta,  —  caused  by  superior  military  strength  and  foreign 

aid. 
Thebes,  —  caused  by  native  patriotism  and  culture. 
Macedon,  —  caused   by  royal  ambition,  interference  in 
Greek  affairs,  diplomacy. 
Mutual  jealousies  and  constant  wars. 
Gradual  weakening  of  important  states  through 
lack  of  union  (fault  in  organization), 
lack  of  Hellenic  patriotism  and  local  unselfishness  (fault 
in  spirit). 
General  Characteristics  of  Hellenic  History. 

Local  individual  development  from  conmion  Homeric  basis : 

Of  constitutions,  into  tyrannies,  democracies,  aristocracies. 
.  Of  ideals,  into  statesmen,  generals,  poets,  artists,  philoso- 

phers. 
Of  religion,  into  Socratic  philosophy,  popular  superstition. 

The  opening  of  the  Peloponnesian  War  shows  us  the  Greek 
world  in  all  its  relations  within  and  without :  two  strong  groups 
of  states  within,  engaged  in  a  long-threatened  conflict,  and  repre- 
senting the  opposing  principles  of  aristocracy  and  democrac}^  as 
embodied  in  their  leading  cities  ;  these  cities  gradually  weakened 


34  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

and  deserted  by  their  allies,  the  strength  of  their  respective  con- 
federacies broken,  and  passing,  in  some  measure,  to  Thebes ; 
meanwhile,  the  relation  toward  the  barbarian  had  so  far  changed 
that  Persia  was  enabled  to  interfere  very  effectively  in  Greek 
affairs,  the  Greek  bitterness  towards  her  being  very  mate- 
rially softened.  The  Persian  sympathy  was  naturally  at  first 
against  Athens,  who  had  proved  her  most  dangerous  and 
persistent  foe  in  the  Persian  wars ;  but  when  Athens  was 
weakened,  the  Asiatics  attacked  Sparta,  and  the  whole  Greek 
world  was  undermined  by  mutual  jealousy  and  foreign  intrigue. 
Philip  of  Macedon,  therefore,  found  it  comparatively  easy  to 
follow  the  lead  of  Persia,  and  to  develop  still  further  that 
policy  of  aiding  one  Greek  state  against  another  to  the  mutual 
injur}^  or  ruin  of  both,  while  he  himself  held  all  his  forces 
in  his  single  hand,  to  obey  his  single  will.  If  Athens  had 
had  the  spirit  to  follow  the  lead  of  Demosthenes,  and  Greece 
the  spirit  to  follow  the  one  lead  of  Athens ;  or  if,  in  the 
preceding  generation,  Pericles  had  been  able  to  form  that 
Hellenic  Union,  which  the  best  Athenians  desired,  then  Greece 
might  have  become  the  leading  power  of  the  Eastern  Mediter- 
ranean. But  the  maritime  power  of  Athens  had  been  thoroughly 
broken  at  iEgospotami,  and  with  it  her  power  of  holding  her 
old  allies ;  the  influence  of  Persian  gold  was  strong  in  Sparta 
and  the  smaller  Grecian  states ;  neither  the  spirit  nor  the 
organization  existed  capable  of  resisting  such  a  power  as 
Philip  possessed.  For  Philip  possessed  not  only  material 
powers,  such  as  Persia  held ;  but  by  becoming  a  Greek  unto 
the  Greeks,  he  was  able  to  disguise  their  national  subjection 
under  national  sympathies  and  forms.  His  wars  were  Greek 
wars,  in  which  he  led  Greek  against  Greek,  and  even  at  the 
fatal  day  of  Chseronea,  it  was  as  an  elected  general  of  Greek 
forces  that  he  subdued  the  last  independent  cities ;  and  when 
he  called  a  Hellenic  congress  at  Corinth,  and  was  chosen  cap- 
tain-general of  Hellenic  forces  against  the  Asiatic,  there  must 
have  been  many  of  the  Greeks  who  believed  that  their  race  was 
just  about  to  enter  on  a  still  greater  career. 


STUDY   ON  PERIOD  431-338.  35 

From  the  siege  of  Troy  to  the  day  of  Chaeronea,  the  course 
of  Greek  history  is  clearly  evolutional  and  singularly  free  from 
outside  influence.  In  politics,  from  first  to  last,  the  constant 
tendency  to  Hellenic  union  is  overborne  by  the  stronger  ten- 
dency to  local  independence.  This  latter  tendency,  of  course, 
had  its  advantage,  in  that  it  gave  each  local  character  opportu- 
nity to  develop  itself  completely  and  distinctly.  Each  Homeric 
ideal  culminates  in  the  fifth  century  b.c.  ; — Achilles  into  the 
Spartan  warrior  ideal ;  Ulysses  into  the  Athenian  who  is  at 
once  general  and  statesman  ;  the  bard  has  grown  through  gen- 
erations to  the  full  stature  of  the  Athenian  dramatists.  That 
these  types  tended  to  culminate  so  variously  in  Athens  is  to  be 
attributed,  perhaps,  mainly  to  two  facts :  one,  her  free  trading 
and  commercial  life,  which  took  her  citizens  to  and  fro  through 
the  contemporaneous  world,  quickening  their  minds  with  new 
ideas,  enlarging  their  hearts  with  new  sympathies  ;  the  other, 
her  free  constitution,  which  educated  every  man  to  hear,  to 
think,  to  decide  in  regard  to  matters  of  larger  import  than  the 
petty  round  of  merely  individual  life  can  furnish. 

Suggestions  for  Dictation  and  Examination.  —  Illustrate  from 
Greek  history  the  saying,  "He  who  will  save  his  life  shall  lose  it." 
The  military  value  of  unselfishness.  We  say  now-a-days,  "The  pen 
is  mightier  than  the  sword";  what  would  an  Athenian  have  said 
instead,  and  how  might  he  have  illustrated  it?  When  did  the  fall  of 
Greece  begin,  and  how?  Why  should  Athenians  be  quicker  to  seize 
opportunity  than  the  Spartans  ?  Why  should  they  be  more  patriotic 
than  Persians?  Than  other  Greeks?  Why  should  they  be  more 
interested  in  Greece  as  a  whole  than  other  Greeks  were?  What  had 
made  the  Athenians,  as  a  whole,  politically  acute  ?  Demosthenes?'. 
Philip.  The  real  causes  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Its  results  and 
effects.  Letters  of  an  Athenian  to  a  Milesian,  405-338.  The  Spartan 
V.  the  Athenian  spirit.  Influence  of  the  Greek  ideas  and  ideals  in  our 
own  time. 


36  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

THE   HELLENISTIC   OR  ALEXANDRIAN   CON- 
QUESTS AND  KINGDOMS,  338-146  B.C. 

The  general  results  of  the  work  on  pp.  119-127  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows :  — 

THE   HELLENISTIC   OR  ALEXANDRIAN  CONQUESTS  AND 
KINGDOMS. 
Organizations  formed. 

Military  monarchies  or  despotisms,  supported  by  standing  armies. 
Results  of  Conquests  and  the  Foundation  of  the  Ne^v  King- 
doms. 

Development  of  trade. 

New  trade-routes  opened  to  the  East : 
Canal  from  Nile  to  Red  Sea. 
Trading  posts  in  Indian  Ocean. 
Foundation  of  new  trade-centres : 
Alexandria. 
Antioch. 

Seleucia  (near  Babylon). 
Pergamos. 
Development  of  art,  science,  and  literature,  in  new  directions, 
with  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Pergamos,  as  centres. 
Natural  science,  especially 
medicine, 
astronomy, 
physics. 
Poetry,  —  pastoral  and  elegiac. 
Drama,  —  new  comedy. 
Spread  of  Greek  language,  in   Egypt,  Macedon,  Syria,  Asis 
Minor,  and  eastward  toward  India. 
Character  of  Civilization  (Hellenistic)  affected  by  previous  Egyp- 
tian and  Oriental  culture. 

Dependent  on  courts  for  development  and  support. 
Practical  in  its  tendencies,  seen  in 
new  schools  of  ethics,  — 
Epicureanism. 
Stoicism. 


ALEXANDRIAN   CONQUESTS   AND   KINGDOMS.  3T 

new  forms  of  literature,  — 

new  comedy. 

pastoral  and  )  , 

,     .  [  poetry, 

elegiac  ) 

new  directions  of  thought,  — 

scientific. 

It  should  be  distinctly  felt  that  the  conquests  of  Alexander 
owe  their  importance  to  the  fact  that  they  were  the  conquests 
of  Hellenism ;  by  Hellenism,  meaning  the  spirit  of  Hellenic 
culture,  rather  than  its  body.  For  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
Alexandrian  art,  poetry,  thought,  and  activity,  ran  after  all  in 
new  channels,  determined  by  the  contact  of  the  versatile  Hel- 
lenic mind  with  new  circumstances  and  with  old,  firmly-fixed 
civilizations,  fitted  rather  to  give  than  receive  impressions. 
The  spirit  of  local  patriotism  yielded  to  the  cosmopolitanism  of 
an  empire  ;  and  the  seriousness  of  Socrates,  ^schylus,  and 
Aristophanes,  changed  to  the  practical  observations  and  ethics 
of  men  of  the  world.  That  Alexander  felt  and  made  him- 
self the  representative  of  the  Greek  world  is  clear  enough ; 
chosen  general-in-chief  of  Greek  forces  by  a  congress  of  Hel- 
lenic states,  sanctioned  by  Delphi,  sacrificing  to  the  Greek 
deities,  dedicating  his  spoils  to  the  Athena  of  the  Acropolis, 
and  establishing  Greek  political  forms  in  the  cities  he  founded 
and  conquered,  the  pupil  of  Aristotle  and  the  lover  of  Homer 
seemed  to  be  Greek  in  all  but  name.^  That  the  Greeks 
themselves  were  uneasy  under  the  Alexandrian  rule  militates 
not  in  the  least  against  this  view,  since  throughout  their  organ- 
ization and  history,  their  little  city-states  were  always  uneasy 
under  any  attempt  at  centralization,  whether  native  or  foreign  ; 
and  during  this  very  period,  we  find  their  most  hopeful  attempts 
at  political  union,  the  Greek  leagues,  —  the  famous  forerun- 
ners of  modern  confederacies  such  as  are  our  United  States,  — 
marred  by  their  partial  character  ;  while  all  the  attempts  to  regain 

1  It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  the  modern  Greek  claim  to 
the  old  Macedonian  land,  as  a  just  part  of  the  Greek  territory. 


88  STUDIES   IN  GENERAL.  HISTORY. 

independence  are  too  local  to  have  the  least  worth.  In  fact, 
the  whole  Greek  history  is  an  illustration  of  particularism.,  a 
term  which  the  teacher  may  do  well  to  introduce  as  the  antithe- 
sis of  centralization. 

It  will  be  noted  in  the  progressive  history  of  the  Aryan  world 
that  states  and  empires  increase  in  size  ;  thus,  the  Alexandrian 
empire  exceeds  the  Persian  in  this  respect,  and  is  itself  exceeded 
by  the  Roman.  This  Alexandrian  empire  illustrates,  too,  both 
in  its  conquests  and  its  foundations,  the  fact  that  the  ancient 
world  was  held  and  characterized  by  its  great  metropolitan 
centres  of  wealth,  population,  and  art.  It  was  not  the  desire 
of  land  that  drew  Alexander  eastward  with  his  Greeks ;  the 
heaped-up  splendors  of  Tyre  and  Sidon,  of  Jerusalem  and 
Damascus,  of  Memphis  and  Babylon,  were  richer  boot}^  than 
the  rough  North  and  West  could  offer,  and  their  possession  meant 
the  absolute  possession  of  all  their  subject  lands  ;  since  with- 
out their  walls  was  neither  wealth,  nor  will,  nor  leadership  for 
resistance  ;  the  land  was  but  their  great  dumb  feeder.  So  to 
establish  his  own  power  permanently,  Alexander  felt  that  he 
must  found  cities,  that  should  stamp  and  rule  all  the  surround- 
ing land  and  folk ;  hence,  the  noble  foundations  of  Alexandria, 
Antioch,  Pergamos,  Candahar,  Smyrna,  enduring,  living  monu- 
ments of  Hellenistic  sagacity  and  power.  But  from  this  very 
fact  of  strong  and  widely  separated  centres,  the  Alexandrian 
empire,  though  continuous  in  territory  and  with  the  same  gov- 
erning people,  could  not  hold  together.  The  interests  of  each 
centre  were  too  strong  and  too  strongly  supported  by  old  his- 
toric divisions  of  language,  faith,  and  spirit,  to  allow  of  any- 
thing more  than  the  most  fleeting  union.  Of  these  new  foun- 
dations, Alexandria  is  justly  considered  greatest,  since  it  com- 
manded the  commerce  of  the  Nile,  and  all  the  caravan  routes 
of  Southern  Asia.  In  our  own  times,  it  has  gained  a  new 
importance  by  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal. 

Since  Alexander  is  of  the  small  number  whom  all  men  call 
*'  Great,"  it  will  be  wise  for  the  teacher  to  dwell  on  the  force 
of  the  adjective  as  here  applied ;  of  course  Alexander's  work 


ROME,   753  (?)  B.C.  -  800  A.D.  39 

was  great  since  it  effected  the  union  of  the  Greek  and  Orient 
worlds  ;  but  that  the  man  himself  was  great  is  shown  by  the 
very  facts  of  his  eastward  march  ;  by  the  net  of  conquest  which 
he  drew  about  Asia  Minor,  by  securing  all  the  strong  cities  of 
her  coasts,  thus  holding  the  outlets  and  inlets  of  the  country ; 
by  the  courage  and  perseverance  with  which  he  pushed  across 
hostile,  desert,  and  unknown  lands,  to  discover  what  and  where 
the  wonderland  of  India  was  ;  by  the  unbroken  daring  with 
which,  in  the  face  of  mutiny,  he  built  a  fleet  in  order  to  send 
Nearchus  back  a  new  way ;  by  the  boundless  energy  and  wis- 
dom with  which  he  dotted  his  march  with  towns. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  "Work.  —  Was  Alex- 
ander the  Conqueror  or  the  Representative  of  the  Greeks  ?  (Debate.) 
Journal  of  a  Greek  soldier  in  the  Alexandrian  army.  Letter  of  a  dis- 
contented Macedonian  soldier  from  an  Indian  encampment.  The 
debt  of  civilization  to  the  Alexandrian  despots.  Alexander  compared 
with  Xerxes.  The  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  individualism  as 
illustrated  by  Greek  history.  Compare  the  Greek  invasion  of  Asia 
with  the  Asiatic  invasion  of  Greece.  The  influence  of  the  Orient  on 
Greek  thought  and  action  in  Alexandrian  times. 


3>*:c 


ROME,   753  (?)  B.C. -800  A.D. 

The  answers  to  the  questions  on  p.  130  may  be  summarized 
as  follows  :  — 

ITALY. 

Geographic  Character  and  Position. 

Large,  fertile  plains,  with  easy,  natural  separations : 

Valley  of  the  Po. 

Plains  eastward  of  the  Apennines. 

Plains  of  Campania. 
Variety  of  soil  and  production. 
Protection  from  invasion  by 

Alps. 

Seas. 


40  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Italy.  —  Continued. 

Central  position  in  Mediterranean,  commanding  commerce  of 

Spain,  the   Rhone   valley,  the  African   coasts,   and  all 

eastern  commerce  passing  by  it  westward.^ 
Nearest  civilized  neighbors  at  776  b.c.  : 

Carthage  (Phoenician). 

Greece. 
Race   Distribution,   determined  by  mountain   barriers   and  river- 
basins. 

Kelts,  in  Po  valley. 

Italians  and  Etruscans,  in  centre. 

Latins,  centred  about  Rome. 

Samnites,  in  mountains. 

Etruscans,  in  Tuscan  plain. 
Greeks,  in  south  and  in  Sicily. 

Results  of  Geographic  Character  and  Position  of  Italy. 

Natural  political  divisions  larger  than  in  Greece. 
Beginning  of  civilization  later  than  in  Greece. 
Natural  occupation  and  support,  — 

agriculture  and  commerce. 
Sources  of  foreign  civilization,  — 

Greek  and  Phoenician. 

Special  Advantages  of  Rome. 

Central  position  in  Italy. 
Commands  the  Tiber  water-way. 
Unites  seven  hill-fortresses. 
In  the  midst  of  a  fertile  plain. 

While  the  geographical  advantages  and  peculiarities  of  Italy 
should  be  clearly  appreciated,  too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid 
upon  them,  since  all  history  teaches  that  while  geography  is  a 
great  primary  factor  in  starting  a  people,  it  soon  becomes  over- 
laid and  involved  with  many  other  factors  as  powerful,  so  that, 
in  time,  it  loses  much  of  its  influence. 

1  Of  course  this  command  would  only  come  with  the  mastery  of  Italy 
and  Sicily  by  a  single  power;  this  acquired,  Italy  is  easily  mistress  of  all 
the  Mediterranean  commerce  passing  her  eastward  or  westward,  by  virtue 
of  the  narrow  seas  between  hergclf  and  Africa. 


STUDY  ON  REGAL  ROME.  41 

A.  B.  I.   STUDY  ON  KEGAL  EOME  AND  PEH-PUNIO 
EEPUBLIO. 

The  studies,  pp.  130-151  inclusive,  may  be  summarized  some- 
what as  follows :  — 

REGAL  AND  PR^-PUNIC  REPUBLICAN  ROME. 

Organizations  of  the  Period  within  (Roman). 
Patrician  monarchy. 

Power  centred  in  a  king,  limited  by  a  body  of  patricians, 
bound  together  by  birth  and  worship,  753(?)-510(?)  B.C. 
Patrician  aristocratic  republic,  510  (?)  B.C. 

Developed  by  patrician  revolt  against  the  oppression  of 
royalty  in 

concentrating  power, 
in  use  of  public  money, 
imposition  of  public  burdens. 
Based  on  bonds  of  kinship  and  religion. 
Characterized  by 

concentration  of  power  in  hands  of  senate, 
division  of  royal  power  among  magistrates. 
Patricio-plebeian  republic,  264  B.C. 

Developed  by  party  strife  of  patricians  and  plebeians, 
caused  by 

social  and)  class  distinctions, 
political     ) 
harsh  debt-laws, 
unjust  distribution  of  land, 
strengthened  by 

military  power  of  plebeians, 
traditional  and  organized  rule  of  patricians, 
neutralized  by 

common  interest  and  needs  in 
defence  and 
conquest. 
Based  on  bonds  of  common  interest  and  residence. 
Rigid  social  classes  (patricians,  plebeians) 

formed  by  distinctions  of  birth  and  worship, 
distinguished  by  exclusive  patrician  privileges. 


42  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Regal  and  Tr.il-Punic  Republican  Rome.  —  Continued. 

composed  of   patriarchal  families,   forming  clans   and 
tribes,  as  with  the  Greeks. 
Organizations  of  Period  -without  (Italian). 

The  Roman  military  and  agricultural  colony. 
The  Latin  league. 
The  Italian  allied  towns. 
Developments  and  Tendencies  of  People  and  Time. 
Democracy. 

Equal  distribution  of  political  power. 
Social  equality. 
Political  parties. 

Patricians  v.  plebeians. 

Rich  V.  poor  (compare  with  aristocrats  and  democrats, 
the   Eupatrids  and   the   "  Many "  of  the   Greek 
cities). 
Constant  and  consolidated  growth  of  dominion. 
Caused  by 

order  of  conquest,  — 

Latium,  Etruria. 
Samnium. 
South  Italy, 
mixture  of  Romans  and  Italians  in 
residence, 
religion. 

government  and  law. 
superiority  of  Rome  to  neighboring  peoples  in 
defences, 
position, 
organization. 
Resulting  in  uniting  Italy  in 
language  (Latin), 
law,  habits,  religion. 
Introduction  of  foreign  culture  (from  Greece  and  Phoenicia). 
Original  development  in 
architecture,  — 

arch, 
government,  - 

constitution  of  Rome, 
management  of  conquests. 


STUDY  ON  REGAL  ROME.  43 

Characteristics  of  Period. 

Close  union  of  politics  and  religion  (church  and  state). 
Polytheistic  faith. 
Utilitarianism,  seen  in 

religion. 

public  works. 

attitude  towards  art  and  literature. 
Domination  of  individual  by  state. 
Strict  regard  for  form  and  order,  seen  in 

politics. 

religion. 
Patrician  dignity,  pride,  patriotism. 
Severity  and  simplicity,  seen  in 

law. 

manners. 

style  of  life,  — 

agricultural, 
military. 
Ideals  of  period,  — 

warrior. 

law-giver. 

farmer. 

Just  here,  in  the  study  of  the  Roman  constitutions,  the  teacher 
will  find  the  advantage  of  having  taken  time  for  the  thorough 
understanding  of  the  constitutional  development  of  Athens  ;  if 
this  has  been  mastered,  he  will  find  that  the  work  on  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Roman  constitution  may  be  made  little  more  than 
a  quick  review  and  application  of  what  the  pupil  already  knows. 
For,  although  more  complex  and  extended,  the  constitutions 
of  Rome  are,  after  all,  of  the  antique  type,  and  follow  from 
stage  to  stage  the  antique  development.  As  in  the  Athenian, 
so  in  the  Roman  state,  these  marked  revolutions  occur.  Within 
an  original  society,  composed  of  the  king  and  his  tribal  nobles,  _ 
known  as  Eupatrids  or  Patricians  ("the  well-born,"  the 
"  fathers"),  the  oppressions  of  the  king,  and  the  power  of  the 
nobles,  result  in  the  overthrow  of  monarchy,  and  the  establish- 
ment of  a  state,  exclusive  and  aristocratic  to  the  outside  world, 


44  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

but  within  itself  pervaded  with  political  and  social  equality. 
This  aristocratic  republic,  in  turn  attacked  by  those  without  its 
pale  of  birth  and  worship,  is  compelled  little  by  little  to  yield 
a  place  and  name  in  the  state,  to  the  real  powers  of  wealth, 
labor,  plebeian  numbers  and  fighting  value,  until  at  last,  a  final 
stage  is  reached  by  the  constitutions  of  Clisthenes,  and  the 
Patricio-Plebeian  Republic,  in  which  all  dwellers  in  the  state 
are  citizens  endowed,  by  law  at  least,  with  equal  powers  and 
rights. 

While  this  is  the  general  course  of  the  development  of  the 
ancient  state,  attention  should  be  called  to  more  detailed  com- 
parisons ;  as  that  the  Roman  curies  correspond  to  the  old  Ionic 
tribes  of  the  time  of  Solon  ;  that  the  centuries  are  divided  like 
the  Solonian  tribes  according  to  wealth ;  while  the  tribes  of  264 
B.C.  are  the  Roman  equivalent  for  the  tribes  of  Clisthenes; 
again,  the  division  of  the  people  into  adverse  parties  on  account 
of  distinctions  of  birth  and  wealth,  and  oppressive  laws  of  debt, 
is  duplicated  from  the  Hellenic  cities.  It  is  well,  also,  to  allow 
the  pupil  to  foretell  the  probable  changes  in  the  Roman  state 
from  Greek  analogies  as  well  as  from  the  actual  Roman  condi- 
tions ;  thus,  he  should  be  able  to  foresee  from  both  points  of 
view,  that  the  first  revolution  will  result  in  the  transference  of 
power  from  the  king  to  the  nobles.  Here  too,  as  strictly  as 
in  Sparta,  the  military  organization  was  identical  with  the  politi- 
cal ;  a  fact  which  enabled  the  evidently  large  plebeian  popula- 
tion of  Rome  to  win  its  wa}*  into  the  state  as  its  necessar}- 
defenders.  1  This  hold  which  the  plebeians  had  upon  the  patri- 
cians is  well  illustrated  by  the  story  from  Livy  on  p.  136,  which 
admirably  shows  the  temper  of  either  party,  —  the  plebeian 
impatience  of  patrician  lordship,  the  patrician  fear  of  plebeian 
desertion,  —  while  we  see  both  impatience  and  fear  first  yield- 


1  This  is  by  no  means  a  necessary  relation,  except  in  states  of  the  mili- 
tary type ;  in  industrial  communities,  workers  are  worth  as  much  as  sol- 
diers to  the  state. 


STUDY   ON   REGAL   ROME.  45 

ing  before  the  pressing  need  of  defending  their  common  city, 
and  then  culminating  in  the  affair  of  the  Sacred  Mount,  by 
which  the  fixed  determination  of  the  plebeians  gained  a  place  in 
the  magistracy  of  the  city,  in  spite  of  the  obstinate  tenacity  of 
the  nobles. 

The  characteristic  features  in  the  growth  of  Rome's  dominion 
are  best  seen  in  contrast  with  the  imperial  growth  of  Athens  ; 
Athens  stands  as  a  single  city  among  equals  who  consent  to 
follow  her  leadership  ;  the  one  word  that  expresses  the  power 
and  character  of  Roman  rule  is  unity  ;  Rome  peoples  her  sub- 
ject lands  with  her  citizens  ;  her  colonies  are  no  commercial 
outposts  of  traders  who  always  remember  they  are  Greeks 
among  barbarians ;  they  are  communities  of  soldier-farmers, 
who  seize  and  settle  the  land,  become  "  sons  of  the  soil,"  and 
little  by  little  force  upon  the  people  their  own  standards  of  law 
and  faith  and  speech,  through  the  power  of  their  fixed  and 
dominant  relation. 

After  the  studies  on  the  constitution  and  the  dominion  of 
Rome,  the  pupils  are  fairly  ready  to  understand  the  historical 
force  of  the  words  "  growth"  and  "  development"  ;  the  former 
applying  exactly  to  the  increase  in  size  of  the  state,  while  the 
latter  describes  the  unfolding  of  its  various  parts  or  organs  to 
their  complete  relations  and  force. 

In  studying  the  life,  the  art,  the  works  of  Rome,  it  is  appar- 
ent that  whatever  is  of  use  in  the  house  or  the  farm,  in  the 
camp  or  the  forum,  is  accepted  and  admired,  and  that  any 
superfluous  thing  is  rejected  as  effeminate  ;  in  their  assemblies, 
men  are  expected  to  vote  independently  and  decisively,  without 
listening  to  discussions  or  speeches  which  might  sway  their 
minds  ;  the  native  art  hardly  goes  further  than  to  commemorate 
a  great  deed  by  a  tablet,  or  a  great  man  by  an  attempt  at  a 
portrait-statue,  or  to  build  a  mighty  wall  against  invasion  ;  hence, 
so  far  as  it  goes,  that  art  has  the  mere  stamp  of  simplicity  and 
effective  strength.  Even  in  their  faith,  the  gods  are  evidently 
regarded  first  of  all  as  powers  whose  favor  it  is  well  to  gam  by 


46  STUDIES   IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

prayer  and  sacrifice  and  festival,  because  they  can  give  plenti- 
ful harvests  and  abundant  victory ;  the  deities,  like  the  folk, 
live  and  move  and  have  their  being  in  the  visible  working  circle 
of  the  hearth,  the  field,  the  tent,  the  forge. 

Better  than  anything  else,  the  Twelve  Tables  reflect  the 
temper  of  that  early  Roman  polity  ;  absolute  justice  and  equal- 
ity among  citizens ;  protection  for  the  very  slave  of  Rome  ;  but 
for  the  outsider,  the  "  foreigner,"  no  law*,  no  recognition  ;  even 
for  the  citizen,  no  escape  from  the  rigors  of  the  harshest  pen- 
alty ;  the  state  dominates  all ;  here,  as  in  a  mirror,  we  see  the 
stern,  harsh  life  of  the  warlike,  superstitious,  exclusive,  strong- 
handed  city. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  Geographic 
influence  on  Roman  character.  Comparison  of  Roman  and  Athenian 
environment;  same  of  development.  Roman  character  as  seen  in 
Roman  faith.  Speech  of  a  plebeian  to  his  fellows  on  the  Sacred 
Mount.  Visit  of  an  Athenian  to  Rome  about  400  B.C.  Same  of  a 
Spartan.  The  gods  of  Greece  versus  the  gods  of  Rome.  How  far 
was  Rome  a  civilized  state  at  264  b.c.V  Pericles  and  Cincinnatus. 
What  was  the  use  of  a  dictator  to  Rome? 


B.  11.  STUDY  ON  EEPTOLIOAN  ROME,  POTIO  PERIOD. 

In  the  study  on  the  Punic  period  the  military  type  of  state 
is  brought  sharply  into  contrast  with  the  commercial  type  ;  this 
one  fact  marks  the  difference,  —  Rome  conquers  her  neighbors, 
while  Carthage  pays  them  tribute.  This  by  no  means  says  that 
the  Romans  were  the  braver  folk,  but  simply  that  their  living 
was  partly  dependent  on  war,  and  the  gains  of  war,  while  for 
theirs,  the  Carthaginians  demanded  leisure,  and  friendly  rela- 
tions with  as  many  peoples  as  possible. 

The  studies  on  pp.  153,  155,  158,  1G2,  164,  1G6,  169,  may 
be  summarized  somethino:  as  follows  :  — 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   ROME. 


47 


PUNIC  PERIOD,  264-146  B.C.  —  ROME  AGAINST  CARTHAGE. 
Comparative  Vievsr  of  Antagonists,  264  B.C. 


Rome. 

Carthage. 

Territory : 

Continental,  — 

Italy, 

Maritime ;  colonial,—  Sicily, 

south  of  Apennines. 

African   and    west  Medi- 

terranean    coasts,     Spain 

(Cadiz),  Sardinia. 

Armies : 

Citizens. 

Mercenaries,  and  subject 
peoples. 

Basis  of  life,  occupa- 

Agriculture. 

Commerce. 

tion  : 

Material  civilization :  ^ 

Primitive. 

Highly  developed. 

Ideal : 

Soldier  and  law 

-giver. 

Wealthy  merchant  and  skil- 
ful navigator. 

Comparative  Power  among  states,  —  about  equal,  as  shown  by  the 

affair  of  the  Mamertines. 
Growth  of  Home  during  Period. 
In  dominion. 

By  First  Punic  War,  — 

Sicily,  Corsica,  Sardinia,  alliances  in  Spain  and  Gaul. 
By  Second  Punic  War,  — 

Spain,  dependent  alliance  of  Carthaginian  Africa. 
By  period  from  Second  to  Third  Punic  War,  — 
Cisalpine  Gaul. 
Macedonia  and  Greece. 
Western  Asia  Minor. 
By  Third  Punic  War,  — 

Carthaginian  Africa,  as  a  province. 
[Note  that  this  conquest  is  steady  and  progressive,  new  possessions 
being  adjacent  to  old.] 
In  wealth : 

The  tribute  of  Carthage,  Macedonia,  and  Sicily. 
In  fighting  power : 

Tributary  troops  of  Carthage,  Macedonia,  and  Sicily ; 

1  After  the  preliminary  study  on  Phoenicia,  this  comparison  should  be 
made  almost  without  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  student. 


48  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTOBY. 

PcNxc  Period,  264-146  b.c.  —  Continued. 

Allied  troops  of  Western  Asia ; 
The  formation  of  a  fleet;  .*. 

Becomes  leading  military  power  of  Mediterranean. 
In  influence : 

Becomes  leader  and  arbiter  of  Mediterranean  lands. 
In  organization : 

Beginning  of  provincial  governments  (imperial  type). 
In  civilization : 

Influence  of  Greece  and  the  Orient,  seen  in 
literature, 
art. 
life. 
Character  displayed  during  Period. 
By  Carthage : 

Avarice,  —  mistaken  prudence;  at  the  last,  patriotism. 
Dependence  on  great  generals,  and  their  personal  power 
over  mercenaries  {Hannibal).^ 
By  Hannibal : 

Patriotism,  perseverance,  determination,  ingenuity,  cour- 
age, personal  power,  good  judgment. 
By  Greece : 

Disunion,  jealousy,  love  of  freedom. 
By  Rome,  before  the  close  of  Second  Punic  War : 

Reliance  on  whole  body  of  citizens,  on  law  and  patriotism. 
Patriotism,  determination,  courage,  perseverance. 
Strong  regard  for  religious  forms. 
Native  genius,  —  military,  legal,  engineering. 
Concentration  of  life  at  city  of  Rome : 

Legal  and  military,  in  hands  of  patricians. 
Literary    and    artistic,  in    hands   of    foreigners 
(Greeks). 

1  Note  that  Hannibal's  single  qualities,  acting  through  a  body  of  loyal 
soldiery,  match  the  collective  qualities  of  the  Roman  state,  acting  through 
a  body  of  patriotic  citizens.  Hannibal  has  within  himself  those  elements 
of  success  which  Rome  possesses,  and  which  Carthage  lacks ;  but  finally, 
he  lacks  the  independent  power  to  develop  his  own  genius  to  a  victorious 
issue.  It  is  a  significant  contrast  that  Carthage  concentrates  her  greatness 
in  a  single  man,  while  Rome  obtains  greatness  from  the  diffusion  of  great 
qualities  among  her  citizens. 


STUDY   ON   KEPUBLICAN   ROME.  49 

By  Rome,  in  later  Punic  period,  201-146  B.C. 
Growth  of  new  aristocracy  on  bases  of 
military  \ 

official     >■  superiority, 
monied  ) 
Tendency   to   subject   law   to   the   individual    (Scipio, 

Fabius). 
Growth  of  demagogism,  —  games,  corn  distributions. 
Growth  of  popular  power  (Roman  rabble). 
Political  corruption. 
Harshness,  cruelty,  and   injustice  to  allies,  provincials, 

and  slaves. 
Influx  of  Greek  and  Oriental  culture 
brought  in  by 

triumphs. 

returning  soldiers  and  officials, 
opposed  by  Cato  and  old-style  Romans. 
Ideal,  —  the  successful  general  with  plenty  of  booty. 
Taste  for  coarse  and  cruel  amusements,  —  low  comedy, 

gladiatorial  fights. 
Tendencies  to  atheism,  together  with  superstition   and 

formality. 

Decay  of  small  farmers 

caused  by 

large  estates  worked  by  slaves,  hence 

no  demand  for  free  labor. 

distributions  of  cheap  or  free  provincial 

grain  at  Rome,  hence 
no  Roman  market  for  grain, 
resulting  in 

drift  of  landless  men  to  Rome. 

selling  of  the  suffrage. 

idle  Roman  populace,  dependent  on  foreign 

bread, 
dangerous  country  population  of  slaves. 

The  chief  point  to  be  noted  in  regard  to  organization  during 
this  period  is  the  formation  of  an  imperial  relation.  This  rela- 
tion really  begins  with  the  acquisition  of  Sicily  and  the  estab- 
lishment of  provincial  government,  personified  in  proconsuls, 


60  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

whose  absolute  rule  abroad  introduced  the  imperial  principle 
into  the  Roman  state.  This  point,  though  simple,  must  be 
emphasized,  since  the  whole  fabric  of  the  empire  had  this  for 
its  excuse,  the  necessity  of  some  organization  by  which  a  city 
could  rule  far-distant  peoples  and  lands,  and  the  emperors  were 
always  the  rulers  of  the  provinces  rather  than  of  Rome.  The 
events  of  the  later  Punic  period  show  very  clearly  how  it  was 
that  when  Rome  had  once  made  herself  decidedly  stronger  than 
her  neighbors,  they  naturally  sought  her  alliance  and  her  influ- 
ence ;  thus,  as  the  keeper  of  the  peace,  or  as  the  champion  of 
one  party,  people,  or  prince  against  another,  tlie  chosen  arbiter 
and  protector  of  the  various  Mediterranean  lands  became  their 
administrator  and  conqueror.  Even  in  this  period,  it  is  to  be 
noted,  that  while  the  subject  peoples  of  Rome  were  forced  to 
accept  absolutism  at  her  hands,  yet  it  was  perhaps  a  lesser  evil 
than  their  own  chronic  condition  of  civil  war  and  anarchy. 
Just  here,  the  pupil  should  be  able  to  foresee  something  of  the 
necessary  future  growth  of  Roman  dominion,  and  at  least  to 
forecast  the  completion  of  the  Mediterranean  circle.  If  the 
teacher  think  best,  he  may  at  once  ask  for  a  comparison  of  the 
map  on  p.  157,  with  that  of  the  finished  empire,  when  the  pupil 
will  see  that  the  natural  process  of  growth  only  ends  when 
great  natural  boundaries  are  reached,  —  the  Rhine,  the  Danube, 
the  ocean,  the  Sahara. 

The  details  of  the  Second  Punic  "War  are  remarkably  instruc- 
tive, since  by  the  very  nature  of  the  case  they  give  us  a  con- 
stant comparison  of  characters  and  tempers  and  organizations. 
The  citizen  army  versus  the  mercenary  band,  the  popular  con- 
trol of  military  movements  as  opposed  to  the  absolutism  of  a 
great  general,  the  respective  play  of  moral  forces  in  the  indus- 
trial and  the  commercial  state  —  all  these  are  well  worth  study- 
ing. In  the  text  I  have  called  attention  to  a  few  detailed 
points,  as  to  that  unfortunate  Roman  organization  which  divided 
the  command  of  the  army  between  two  consuls  at  the  crisis  of 
Cannae,  when,  if  ever,  Rome  needed  the  absolute  rule  of  a 
dictator  to  ensure  prompt  decision  and  consistency  of  action. 


STUDY   ON    liEPUBLICAN    ROME.  51 

The  teacher  will  find  it  well  worth  his  while  to  take  all  the  time 
necessary  to  a  fair  appreciation  of  the  changed  conditions  of 
Roman  life  and  the  consequent  change  in  Roman  character  that 
are  found  in  existence  in  the  later  Punic  period,  since  thorough- 
ness here  means  the  easy  comprehension  of  the  Empire.  The 
fundamental  change  of  all  is  due  to  the  new  ideals  that  entered 
the  popular  mind.  The  successful  general,  returning  with 
plenty  of  mone}'  and  with  hosts  of  strange  and  beautiful  objects, 
easily  became  the  popular  hero,  and  could  have  what  he  would 
from  the  admiring  crowd  whose  man  he  was  willing  to  be.  He 
could  not  oppress  the  Roman  populace,  it  is  true,  for  he  had 
competitors  who  might  outbid  him  to-morrow  in  glory  or  gener- 
osity ;  unfortunately,  competitors  of  his  own  kind,  for,  b}^  that 
constitutional  fault  which  Pericles  found  it  well  to  correct  in 
Athens,  no  poor  man  could  afford  to  hold  office,  since  public 
officers  were  unpaid. ^  Hence  arose  a  class  of  men,  who  wrested 
victories  and  tributes  from  abroad  to  become  kind,  indulgent 
demagogues  at  home.  Perhaps  Scipio  may  fairly  stand  as  the 
first  of  the  line  which  ended  only  with  the  firm  establishment 
of  imperialism. 

In  the  midst  of  her  rapidl}"  growing  dominion,  Rome  was 
threatened  by  new  dangers  from  within.  Those  arising  from 
the  oppression  of  slaves  and  allies  are  too  evident  and  too 
temporary  to  require  more  than  a  simple  passing  notice  ;  but 
the  most  careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  land-question, 
since  it  is  one  of  our  pressing  modern  problems,  and  since,  in  the 
later  republic,  the  actual  facts  are  so  well  known,  and  the  logic  of 
events  and  conditions  pressed  so  relentlessly  on  to  its  fatal  end. 
By  the  importation  of  foreign  slaves  into  Italy,  the  market  for 
rural  labor  was  destroyed,  since  the  wealthy  non-resident 
Roman  landlords  found  it  cheaper  to  work  their  country- 
estates  b}'  slaves ;  by  the  importation  of  foreign  grain,  which 
rival  demagogues  cheapened  or  even  gave  away,  the  market  for 
wheat  was  taken  from  the  farmers  of  Italy,  and  without  capital 

1  Compare  modern  constitutions,  British  and  American. 


62  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

they  found  themselves  quite  unable  to  compete  against  the 
masters  of  large  slave- worked  estates,  as  raisers  of  stock  or 
keepers  of  vineyards.  So  the  small  country  holdings  and  the 
multitudinous  country  interests  that  held  the  men  of  Italy  bound 
in  close  relations  to  her  soil  gradually  died  out,  and  the  country 
population  became  one  of  slaves,  mostly  imported  from  abroad, 
with  no  interest,  native  or  acquired,  either  in  the  soil  or  its 
labors.  As  for  the  owners  of  these  estates,  they  mostl}'  lived 
at  Rome,  using  their  country  places  for  revenue  and  pleasure ; 
meanwhile,  the  old  country  population  crowded  to  the  city, 
where  it  formed  an  idle,  helpless  herd,  corrupting  the  decisions 
of  the  Forum  by  its  mercenary  votes,  sold  to  the  highest  bidder 
for  amusement  or  food.  Thus  the  living  union  of  the  soil  and 
the  man  perished,  the  respect  for  labor  vanished  when  it  was 
no  longer  free,  and  the  people  of  Italy  became  largely  depend- 
ent on  the  provinces  for  food.  Thus  a  natural  relation  arose 
between  successful  conquerors  or  rulers  of  provinces  and  suc- 
cessful and  popular  magistrates  in  Rome,  and  again  the  inevi- 
table course  toward  imperialism  was  confirmed. 

The  last  question  on  p.  169  calls  for  a  classification  of  the 
dangerous  tendencies  of  Rome  into  those  that  are  politically, 
socially,  and  religiously  so.  But  I  have  purposely-  set  this 
question  in  order  to  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  make  such  a  classification  since  the  social,  politi- 
cal, and  religious  life,  all  make  the  complex  organism  of  the 
state,  and  are  inextricably  mingled  in  its  structure.  The  varied 
classifications  made  by  the  pupils  will  easily  elucidate  this  point. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  military 
versus  the  industrial  character.  (Debate.)  The  debate  at  Messana 
over  the  Roman  or  Carthaginian  alliance.  The  end  of  Greece.  The 
citizen  army  ;  its  defects  and  excellencies.  The  causes  of  the  growth 
of  the  new  aristocracy  at  Rome.  When  was  Rome  greater,  at  264  or 
146  B.C.  ?  At  what  time  would  you  have  been  proudest  to  have  been 
a  Roman  citizen?  Draw  parallels  between  any  modern  conditions 
that  you  know  and  the  condition  of  affairs  at  Rome  in  the  later  Punic 
period.  Account  of  a  Spanish  soldier  to  his  village-comrades  of  the 
Italian  campaign  with  Hannibal.     A  Roman  soldier's  first  visit  to 


STUDY   ON    REPUBLICAN   ROME.  53 

Athens.  What  tendencies  and  characteristics  of  the  later  Punic 
period  seem  to  you  legitimate  developments  from  the  earlier  Roman 
character  ? 

B.  III.  STUDY  0J5f  EEPUBLIOAN  EOME,  POST-PUNIO  PEKIOD. 
The  work  from  pp.  170-192  should  reach  the  general  results 
indicated  in  the  following  summary  :  — 

ROMAN  REPUBLIC,   POST-PUNIC   PERIOD,   146-27   B.C. 

Organization,  —  Military,  Imperial,  Democratic. 

Imperial,  through  the  Mediterranean  basin,  excepting  Italy. 
Democratic,  in  Italy,  centering 
at  Rome. 

in  military  leaders,  or  Imperators  (Emperors). 
Characteristics. 

Constant  party  strife,  —  over  questions,  over  persons,  between 
people  and  senate  (democracy  v.  aristocracy). 
Italians  and  Romans, 
poor  and  rich. 
Social  and  political  discontent 
displaying  itself  in 

dissensions  of  the  Gracchi, 
servile  revolts. 
Social  War. 
resulting  in 

agrarian  laws  (to  check  the  growth  of  large  estates), 
extension  of  suffrage  to  Italy. 
Progressive  growth  ^  of  Roman  dominion  to  natural  limits  of 

seas,  rivers,  mountains,  deserts.     (See  map.) 
Progressive  centralization  of  power 

in  persons  of  successful  generals,  — 
Marius. 
Sulla. 
Pompey. 
Julius  Caesar. 
Augustus  Caesar  Imperator  (emperor) . 

1  The  easy  and  natural  course  of  this  progressive  dominion,  as  com- 
pared with  the  long  and  endless  civil  disturbances,  indicates  that  the  real 
strength  of  Rome  lay  in  her  armies  rather  than  in  her  constitutions. 


64  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Roman  Republic.  —  Continued. 

developed  by  necessities  of  the  state  for 
provincial  order, 
frontier  defence, 
military  organization, 
based  on  popular  favor,  secured  by 
games,  grain-distribution, 
eloquence  in  favor  of  popular  measures, 
generous  use  of  money, 
actual  command  of  armed  forces, 
military  success. 
Corruption  and  weakness  of  Roman  government, 
consisting  in 

bribery,  extortion,   injustice,   inefficiency,  stupid 
selfishness  (treatment  of  allies), 
seen  in 

the  Jugurthine  War. 
the  conspiracy  of  Catiline, 
the  prosecution  of  Verres. 

constant  civil  wars  and  disturbances,  and  their 
difficult  suppression. 
Growing  love  of  wealth  and  pleasure. 
Development  of  native  Italian  talent 

in  oratory  -^ 

in  poetry  (under  Greek  influence)  >-  new.^ 
in  history  ) 

in  engineering,  law,  politics,  war,  —  as  before. 
Growth  of  skepticism  among  cultured,  of  superstition  among 
masses, 

resulting  in 

adoption  of  Greek  philosophy 

deification  of  Csesar. 

identification  of  religion  with  the  state. 

*  It  is  to  be  noted  that  when  the  Italian  genius  began  to  display  itself 
in  a  literature  truly  Latin,  it  still  declared  itself  a  practical  genius,  choos- 
ing facts  and  contemporary  life  and  incident  for  its  material,  even  when 
dependent  on  the  Greeks  for  form.  The  direction  which  the  native  genius 
was  to  take  in  all  its  original  work  is  well'  marked  out  by  the  list  of 
subjects  on  which  the  Elder  Cato  wrote,  p.  163. 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   KOME.  55 

The  above  tabulation  is  so  very  general  that  it  can  only  be 
given  after  the  full  completion  of  the  work.  During  its  prog- 
ress, the  teacher  may  wish  to  sub-summarize  the  results  of 
some  of  the  special  studies  something  as  follows :  — 

"  Dissensions  of  the  Gracchi." 
Caused  by 

unequal  distribution  of  land, 
unequal  political  status  of  Italians  and  Romans.^ 
exclusive  judicial  power  of  senate, 
discontent  of 
poor, 
knights. 
Italian  So 
Resulting  in 

formation  of  parties : 

Democratic  (radical,  reforming  party,  embodied 

in  popular  assembly). 
Aristocratic    (conservative    party,    embodied    in 
senate), 
more  violent  agitation  (Drusus,  and  Social  War), 
establishing  of  precedents  of  violent  and  illegal  action 
in  city  government. 

The  last  point  in  this  summary  is  of  prime  importance ;  froni 
the  time  of  the  Gracchi  onward,  neither  the  people  nor  their 
leaders  serioush'  hesitated  to  use  force  or  to  override  the  con- 
stitution in  order  to  achieve  their  alms.  Thus  Marius  and 
Sulla  ruled  the  Forum  by  force  of  arms,  disregarded  or  t3Tan- 
nized  over  elections,  while  Sulla,  as  dictator,  assumed  not  only 
the  powers  of  a  general,  but  those  of  the  Roman  assemblies  as 
well,  in  disposing  of  the  lands  and  lives  of  citizens. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  one  series  of  events  so  instructive  in 
regard  to   all  the  political  relations  at  Rome  as  that  of  the 

1  The  Roman  franchise  meant  to  the  Italians  cheap  grain,  a  share  in 
the  conquered  lands  of  the  rapidly  growing  dominion  of  Rome,  oppor- 
tunity for  glory,  wealth,  and  political  power.  The  Romans  naturally 
delayed  to  grant  it,  since  division  of  the  spoils  meant  a  smaller  share  for 
themselves. 


56  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Jugurthine  War.  At  its  opening,  we  see  just  how  it  was  that 
Rome  became  so  easily  mistress  when  once  she  became  medi- 
ator. Numidia,  nominally  independent,  was  in  realitj*  the 
absolute  subject  of  Rome,  and  declared  herself  so  in  the  alter- 
nate appeals  of  her  princes.  As  soon  as  actual  interference 
began,  we  see  in  turn  the  moral  weakness  of  Rome,  the  inabil- 
ity of  her  senators  and  generals  to  maintain  an  acknowledged 
right  against  the  power  of  the  bribe,  the  insubordination  of  her 
armies,  the  unwillingness  of  her  generals  to  displease  the  mob 
of  the  forum  or  the  camp.  Again  we  see  the  close  relation 
existing  between  success  on  the  field  and  official  success  in 
Rome,  the  rivalry  of  the  Italian  and  the  Roman,  of  the  senate 
and  the  tribes.  The  whole  history  is  not  so  significant  as  being 
the  story  of  the  conquest  of  Numidia  as  in  being  the  account 
of  the  subtle  ruin  which  Roman  citizens,  generals,  and  senators 
were  all  bringing  upon  their  native  city. 

The  provincial  government  of  Verres  injured  Rome  by  dimin- 
ishing her  revenue,  reputation,  and  consequent  power,  b}'  wast- 
ing and  depopulating  her  grain-growing  estates,  by  shaking 
that  religious  faith  which  always  formed  a  basis  of  political 
power  in  antiquity.  The  speech  of  Cicero,  moreover,  shows 
that  the  case  of  Verres  was  typical,  and  that  provincial  oppres- 
sion and  greed  of  provincial  office  for  the  sake  of  provincial 
spoils  was  no  uncommon  thing. 

In  the  rise  of  Julius  Caesar  we  have  another  of  those  special 
studies  that  throw  light  for  us  on  the  whole  contemporary  life 
and  action  of  the  state.  The  prominent  qualities  of  his  charac- 
ter were  resolution,  hardihood,  unscrupulousness,  daring,  mixed 
with  prudence,  patience,  temperance,  generosity*,  intellectual 
taste  and  power,  personal  vanity  and  ambition,  warm  and  ready 
sympathies  with  those  who  aided  or  did  not  withstand  his  power ; 
add  to  this  the  genius  of  Rome's  greatest  general,  and  an  elo- 
quence equal  to  that  of  the  best,  and  you  find  combined  in  this 
one  man  every  quality  needful  for  success  in  a  government  fallen 
into  the  hands  of  a  spoiled  city  populace,  ready  to  be  bought 
by  the  magnificent  expenditures  which  Cajsar  well  knew  how 


STUDY   ON   REPUBLICAN   ROME.  57 

to  make,  and  ready  to  be  intimidated  by  troops  invincibly 
attached  to  a  leader  who  was  the  personification  of  good  fellow- 
ship and  soldierly  quality.  Fortunately  for  Rome,  however, 
Ciesar  was  greater  than  a  mere  demagogue.  He  aspired  not 
to  be  greater  because  of  Rome,  but  to  make  Rome  greater  be- 
cause of  Ctesar ;  hence,  to  his  name  and  suggestion  may  be 
traced  many  of  the  noblest  measures  of  the  early  empire.  The 
latest  follower  of  the  Gracchi,  he  stood  for  the  rights  of  the 
provinces  as  they  had  stood  for  those  of  Italy.  He  had  a 
higher  ambition  than  to  give  the  citizens  of  Rome  new  peoples 
for  slavery  and  new  lands  for  plunder ;  he  had  a  vision  of  a 
strong  and  thoroughly-welded  state,  that  should  be  comprised 
of  provincials  as  well  as  Romans,  but  through  which  the  Roman 
genius  should  interpenetrate  a  living  growth  by  transmarine 
and  transalpine  colonization.  Hence,  we  find  that  the  enemies 
of  Caesar  are  Romans,  while  the  universal  provincial  mourning 
for  him  shows  the  cosmopolitan  sympathies  which  he  felt  and 
aroused.  Perhaps  the  time  has  not  yet  passed  when  every  one 
has  a  right  to  his  own  opinion  as  to  the  effect  of  Caesar's  death  on 
Rome.  To  us,  his  assassination  seems  but  to  prolong  the  death- 
agony  of  the  republic,  and  delay  the  inevitable  birth  of  empire. 
Throughout  these  studies,  the  constant  evolutional  relation 
between  the  tendencies  and  character  of  the  later  Punic  period, 
and  the  tendencies  and  character  of  the  last  age  of  the  republic 
should  be  kept  in  view. 

The  *'  General  Study"  on  p.  189  should  allow  the  freest  dis- 
cussion and  the  largest  possible  range  of  opinion,  at  the  same 
time  that  certain  positive  generalizations  are  made,  as  that, 
from  beginning  to  end,  the  Romans  had  one  unchanging  ideal, 
the  militar}',  and  one  unchanging  taste,  for  the  practical.  In 
the  later  republic  we  see  the  new  ideals  of  wealth  and  pleasure 
arising  from  new  resources  brought  to  Rome  b}"  her  victorious 
armies ;  meanwhile,  the  old  admiration  for  a  simple,  even 
severe,  type  of  morals  and  manners  gives  way  before  the  charms 
of  the  Greeks  and  the  lawlessness  of  popular  heroes.     In  fact, 


58  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

regarding  the  native  Roman  genius  as  practical,  legal,  military, 
the  most  Roman  age  of  all  her  history  would  seem  to  be  that 
of  the  earlier  republic,  culminating  in  the  epic  of  the  second 
Punic  war.     But  here  opinions  would  justly  differ. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  What  essen- 
tials for  good  republican  government  did  Rome  lack  in  the  first  cen- 
tury B.C.?  Dialogue  regarding  their  respective  miseries  between  a 
Greek  slave  and  an  Italian  farmer,  100  b.c.  Julius  Caesar,  the  ^venger 
of  the  Gracchi.  The  political  importance  of  the  murder  of  Tiberiu* 
Gracchus.  Journal  of  a  Roman  citizen,  88-78  b.c.  The  popular  ori- 
gin of  the  emperors.  The  Greek  versus  the  Roman  genius.  (Debate.) 
The  relation  between  Roman  tastes  and  amusements,  and  the  develop- 
ment of  the  Roman  character.  Letter  written  home  by  a  Gallic  soldier 
and  senator  on  the  occasion  of  Caesar's  death.  The  Roman  roads  and 
the  Roman  Empire.  Reflections  of  Adherbal  on  Rome.  Reflections 
of  Cato  on  the  past  and  the  present. 


C.  I.  STUDY  ON  THE  PAGAN  EMPIRE. —AUGUSTUS  TO 
OONSTANTINE,  27  B.C.  -  323  A.D. 

Discussion  of  Map-Questions.  — The  questions  on  p.  192  are 
so  easy  and  general,  that  the  teacher  may  introduce  a  pleasing 
variety  by  allowing  their  discussion  to  come  up  in  a  class-room 
conversation  without  any  previous  preparation. 

Even  from  the  first,  the  division  of  the  Empire  into  a  Latin 
half  and  a  Greek  and  Oriental  half  was  predestined.  From 
Trieste  eastward,  the  bulk  of  the  towns  were  founded  and 
inhabited  by  Greeks  and  Orientals,  and  were  mistresses  of 
lands  and  peoples  stamped  for  centuries  by  Greek  and  Oriental 
culture.  From  Trieste  westward,  the  towns  were  mostly  of 
Roman  foundation,  and  set  in  the  midst  of  a  barbarism  un- 
touched even  in  the  days  of  Pericles.  The  only  exceptions 
important  to  note  are  the  southern  parts  of  Spain  and  Italy, 
where  the  Greek  and  Oriental  mixture  always  strongly  modified 
the  Latin  element. 

The  two  facts  of  the  large  number  of  cities  in  the  Empire, 
and  of  their  position,  almost  without  exceptioDj  on  the  coast, 


STUDY  ON  THE  PAGAN  EMPIRE.  59 

or  on  river-courses,  indicate  the  general  commercial  activity  of 
the  Empire  ;  but  "  All  roads  led  to  Rome." 

The  studies  on  the  Pagan  Empire  may  be  summarized  some- 
what as  follows :  — 

PAGAN  EMPIRE,  27  B.C. -323  A.D. 

Central  Organization  :  Imperialism,  tending  to  hereditary  despotism. 
Centralized  in 

person  of  emperor. 

city  of  Rome  (citizens  of  Home  have  the  highest  rights 
and  privileges  possible  under  the  Empire). 
Supported  by 

standing  army,  substantial  basis  of  power, 
general  taxation,  severest  in  the  provinces.^ 
adulation  and  adoration  (deification)  of  emperors, 
republican  forms  and  titles. 
Dependent  for  excellence  on 

character  of  emperors ;  e.g.,  Nero  and  the  Antonines. 
Bonds  of  union : 

Language,  — 

Latin  in  West. 
Greek  in  East.^ 
Law  and  government. 
Worship  (adoration  of  emperor)  .^ 
Easy  communication  by  roads,  seas,  rivers. 
Local  Organizations :  Municipal,  republican,  democratic,  similar  to 
the  organization  of  republican  Rome,  which  the  cities  of  the 
West  largely  copied. 
Tendencies  and  Characteristics. 

Growth  of  Greek  and  Oriental  influence,  seen  in 
literature  and  art. 
language, 
religion  (Christianity). 

1  Indeed,  to  use  the  telhng  phrase  of  Prof.  Seeley,  the  provinces  were 
"  the  great  estates  "  of  Rome,  whose  revenues  fed  and  clothed  her  citizens. 

2  Note  that  the  East  roughly  corresponds  to  the  old  Alexandrian  Empire. 

3  Jews  and  Christians  were  monotheists,  and  so  could  not  join  the  body 
of  the  Empire  consistently  in  this  regard;  hence,  one  reason  for  their 
constant  persecution. 


60  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Pagan  Empire.  —  Continued. 

Practical  bent  of  Roman  mind,  seen  in 

native  forms  of  literatui'e,  —  history  and  contemporary 

criticism, 
public  works,  — baths,  bridges,  aqueducts,  amphitheatres. 
Growth  of  Christianity,  — 
seen  in 

imperial  persecutions. 

growth  of  Christian  literature  (compare  third  cen- 
tury with  first), 
importance  of  heresies,  threatening  disunion, 
favored  by 

unity  and  peace  of  Empire, 
decay  of  old  religions. 
Progressive  civilization   and   equalization   of    the   provinces,^ 
seen  in 

origin  and  education  of  great  men. 
universal  suffrage  given  by  Caracalla. 
Differentiation  of  East  and  West  in 
language,  — 

Latin  (West). 
Greek  (East), 
municipal  foundations  and  populations, 
civilization,  — 

Latin  (West). 
Greek  and  Oriental  (East), 
thought  (note  Eastern  origin  of  heresies). 
Development  of  nmnicipal  centres  of  influence  and  culture. 
Rome. 
Alexandria. 
Antioch. 
Carthage. 
Comparative  peace  and  order. 
Decline  of  third  century  seen  in 

deterioration  of  literature  and  art. 
constant  civil  war. 

1  That  Spain  came  first  into  prominence  was  probably  due  to  her 
earlier  conquest  by  Home,  and  possibly  to  her  still  earlier  contact  with 
Phoenicians. 


STUDY   ON   THE   PAGAN   EMPIRE.  61 

growing  difficulties  with  barbarians,  indicated  by 

new  defences  of  Rome. 

frontier  wars, 
development  of  hereditary  despotism,  — 

Diocletian. 
change  and  deterioration  of  population. ^ 
Ideals : 

among  the  Pagans,  —  wealth,  leisure,  pleasure. 

among  the  Christians,  — a  pure,  upright,  brave,  modest, 

industrious,  self-denying.  Christlike  man. 

Permanent  Remains  of  Civilization. 

Literature,  —  history,  poetry. 

Roads. 

Laws. 

The  Christian  religion. 

Languages,  —  French,  Spanish,  Italian. 

Cultivated  lands  of  Latin  countries. 

Architectural  forms,  —  arch  and  dome. 

The  first  question  on  p.  205  is  intended  to  test  the  student's 
understanding  of  the  word  "constitutional,"  as  applied  to 
organic  changes  in  government ;  such  changes  occurred  in  the 
transference  of  municipal  elections  from  the  assemblies  to  the 
Senate,  under  Tiberius  ;  in  the  introduction  of  provincials  to 
the  Senate,  under  Claudius ;  in  the  new  powers  given  b}' 
Hadrian  to  the  Council  of  State  ;  in  the  extension  of  citizen- 
ship to  every  freeman  of  the  Empire  by  Caracalla.  These 
changes  were  all  in  the  line  of  a  natural  development  of  the 
imperial  constitution,  and  culminated  at  last  in  that  radical 
step  taken  by  Diocletian,  —  the  division  of  the  Empire  between 
despotic  rulers  of  the  Oriental  type.  It  is  worth  noting  that 
equality  grew  with  despotism  ;  or,  to  put  it  more  justly,  sub- 
jects ceased  to  rise,  as  rulers  gained  more  universal  power ;  and 
the  provincial  basis  of  the  power  of  the  emperor  received  new 
illustration  from  the  fact  that,  in  the  process  of  equalization, 

1  As  the  Roman  populations  decay,  barbarian  elements  arc  substituted 
for  them,  especially  in  the  army. 


62  STUDIES   IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

the  provincials  gained.  Indeed,  the  provincials  were  the  chief 
gainers  by  the  whole  imperial  system  ;  no  emperor  would  for  a 
moment  have  tolerated  such  bad  management  as  that  of  Yerres 
and  his  fellows ;  to  rule  the  province  well  for  the  emperor 
meant  that  it  should  be  protected  from  invasion  and  disorder, 
that  its  internal  resources  should  be  fully  developed,  and  that 
its  people  should,  on  the  whole,  be  contented  with  their  Roman 
master. 

With  the  universal  loss  of  actual  freedom,  with  the  growth 
of  great  armies  under  rival  generals,  and  the  increasing  custom 
of  deciding  the  imperial  succession  by  civil  war,  it  was  per- 
haps well  that  the  hereditary  i:)rinciple  should  gradually  come 
to  be  recognized;  for,  while  it  subjected  the  Empire  to  the 
chance  of  birth,  this  was  perhaps  no  worse  a  chance  to  run 
than  that  of  the  decision  of  war,  while  at  least  it  relieved  men 
from  the  confusion  and  anarch}^  of  this  latter  method.  Under 
either  method,  the  great  fault  of  the  constitution  was,  that, 
resting  as  it  did  on  a  purely  military  basis,  it  neither  repre- 
sented nor  developed,  but,  on  the  contrary,  repressed  the  moral 
and  intellectual  strength  of  the  Empire,  and  that,  too,  in  the 
direction  of  government,  where  such  forces  were  most  sorely 
needed. 

In  the  lists  of  great  men  and  works  in  the  imperial  period 
we  find  simply  the  natural  development  of  the  practical  Roman 
genius.  We  see  that  works  on  histor}*,  science,  law,  biography, 
far  outweighed  in  number  and  general  value  the  productions  of 
the  poet  or  philosopher.  The  one  great  original  poet,  Horace, 
was  clever  rather  than  great,  and  acquired  popularity  by  the 
graceful  ease  with  which  he  satirized  the  actual  world  ;  while 
Virgil  appealed  to  the  pride  of  the  Roman  race  by  singing  in  a 
half  historic  form  their  own  ancestral  glories. 

In  art  the  same  tendency  is  to  be  noticed ;  whenever  Rome 
broke  away  from  the  influence  of  Greek  subjects,  she  at  once 
left  the  company  of  gods  and  heroes,  and  sought  to  delineate, 
without  idealizing,  the  famous  men,  the  striking  scenes  and 
characters  of  contemporary  life. 


STUDY   OK   THE   fAGAK   EM1»IRE.  63 

The  study  on  p.  218  is  intended  rather  to  bring  fresh  proofs 
in  support  of  previous  points  than  to  convey  any  new  informa- 
tion. The  extract  from  Virgil,  p.  212,  shows  how  easily  an 
emperor  like  Augustus  was  regarded  as  a  god,  since,  like  the 
Roman  deities  in  general,  he  procured  for  the  people  material 
blessings.  The  extract  from  Epictetus  shows  us,  in  a  word, 
what  these  blessings  were,  and  that,  though  the  Romans  had 
no  longer  either  liberty  or  courage  (see  Tacitus) ,  they  had,  at 
least,  peace  and  order,  and  freedom  of  movement.  This,  in 
fact,  was  the  sole  glory  of  the  Empire. 

Even  these  material  blessings  were  not  unmixed  ;  Tiberius 
felt  it  when  he  pointed  out  to  the  Senate  (p.  213)  the  absolute 
dependence  of  Italy  on  the  provinces  for  her  daily  food.  But 
the  great  faults  of  the  imperial  period  were,  after  all,  moral ; 
they  are  seen  in  that  indifferent,  selfish  temper,  which  made 
"  all  Rome  guilty  of  this  Nero"  ;  in  that  avarice  and  jealousy 
of  the  legions,  in  that  flattery  and  cowardice  of  citizens  and 
senators  alike,  to  which  Otho  owed  the  purple ;  in  that  atmos- 
phere whose  interest  centred  in  horses  and  gladiators  ;  in  that 
good-natured,  fashionable  contempt  for  labor,  voiced  by  Pliny. 
All  these  influences  were  constantly  educating  a  new  generation 
into  the  typical  Roman  life  of  the  period,  while,  according  to 
Tacitus,  they  were  strengthened  rather  than  opposed  b}'  the 
educational  surroundings  of  the  child. 

It  is  a  grave  question  how  far  the  individual  was  to  blame 
for  all  this  demoralization.  A  society  organized  on  a  slave 
basis,  by  A^rtue  of  that  very  fact  cannot  respect  labor ;  and 
the  centralization  of  power  in  the  hands  of  one  man  always 
tends  to  weaken  the  minds  and  morals  of  those  subjected  to 
it,  —  two  mighty  causes  of  wide-spread  evils. 

At  the  close  of  all  the  discussions  and  summaries  of  this 
period,  the  teacher  may,  if  he  think  best,  thus  summarize  the 
contrasts  between  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  Christian  Church, 
considering  both  simply  as  historic  organizations,  brought  into 
sharper  and  sharper  contrast  as  the  fourth  century  ap- 
proached :  — 


64 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 


Roman  Empire. 

Christian  Church. 

Founded  on 

force  of  arms. 

force  of  ideas  and  faith  in 
them. 

Bonds  of  union 

government,  law,  language, 

belief   in  the  fatherhood  of 

formal    worship    of     the 

one  God,  and  the  brother- 

emperor. 

hood  of  all  men. 

Social   distinc- 

based on  birth,  wealth,  and 

none ;  equality  of  all  classes 

tions 

occupation. 

and  races  before  God,  a 
predominant  teaching. 

Morality 

based  on  selfishness. 

based  on  unselfishness. 

Ideals 

the    emperor,    the    wealthy 
man  of  leisure,  the  high 
official. 

the  Christlike  man. 

It  will  be  noted  in  this  contrast  what  mutually  destructive 
agencies  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  Christianity  entered 
the  ancient  world  to  maintain  the  manhood  and  brotherhood  of 
the  slave  or  the  alien  ;  to  preach  the  existence  of  one  God  and 
of  no  other;  to  preach  a  morality  based  on  love  and  self- 
denial.  By  virtue  of  these  facts  alone  it  attacked  the  whole 
framework  of  ancient  societ}*,  which  rested  so  firmly  on  bonds 
of  kinship  and  a  polytheistic  worship,  which  had  come  to 
regard  a  standing  army  as  the  condition  of  life  itself,  and 
whose  best  moralit}^  was  an  enlightened  selfishness.  Since 
that  framework  was  largely  wrought  in  favor  of  privileged 
classes,  we  see  at  once  why  Christianity  was  so  fiercely  attacked 
by  the  empire  and  so  fondly  and  rapidly  embraced  by  "the 
Many." 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  "Work.  —  The  debt 
of  Rome  to  Alexander.  The  debt  of  France  and  Spain  to  Rome. 
Parallel  between  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  the  Greek  "  tyrants." 
Suppose  that  Brutus  and  Cassius  had  won  at  Philippi,  instead  of 
Octavian,  what  then  ?  A  journey  from  Rome  to  London,  100  a.d. 
The  Roman  citizen  the  aristocrat  of  the  Empire,  100  a.d.  Journal  of 
a  (iallic  soldier  who  was  sent  from  the  Rhine  frontier  to  ^Memphis. 
Did  the  provinces  conquer  Rome,  or  Rome  the  provinces?  The 
power  behind  the  imperial  throne.     Reflections  of  a  Christian  in  the 


STUDY    ON   THE   TEUTONIC   BARBARIANS.  65 

Colosseum,  90  a.d.  When  did  the  changes  formally  made  by  Diocle- 
tian begin  in  reality  ?  Where  did  political  liberty  still  exist  at  300 
A.D.  ?  The  foreign  debt  of  Roman  literature.  The  Roman  road  v. 
the  Phoenician  ship.  What  is  the  most  universal  bond  of  union  you 
have  yet  found  in  your  study  of  history  ? 


STUDY  ON  THE  TEUTOMO  BARBARIANS. 

The  general  results  of  the  study  may  be  tabulated   as   fol- 
lows :  —      * 

THE   TEUTONIC   BARBARIANS. 

Organization:  Tribal — aristocratic  and  local. 
Units  and  bonds  of  union  : 

patriarchic  family,  —  kinship-bond. 

village  community  and  mark-moot,  —  political  unit  with 
kinship-bond    and    bond   of    common   property; 
supported  by  agriculture, 
warrior-band, —  bonds  of  loyalty  to  a  leader  and  a  com- 
mon interest ;  supported  by  booty  of  war. 
Classes  of  society  and  occupations  (believed  of  divine  origin)  : 
serfs,  —  hard  manual  labor, 
freemen,  —  artisans  and  directors, 
nobles,  — warriors. 
Magistrates : 

kings  or  chiefs,  chosen  for  birth ;  supported  by  gifts, 
chieftains,  heads  of  warrior-bands ;  supported  by  plunder, 
judges,  chosen  by  the  people  for  ability. 
Assemblies : 

mark-moot,  —  general  village  assembly,  purely  local, 
assembly  of  chiefs,  —  deliberative. 

general  assembly  of   f reeborn  warriors,  —  declares  war, 
makes  law,  elects  leaders  and  citizens,  judges. 
Characteristics. 

Bases  of  life : 

war,  seen  in  vocabulary  and  songs,  and  in  warrior-band, 
agriculture,  seen  in  vocabulary  and  in  village  community. 
Independent,  local,  democratic  tendency  in  politics. 


66  STUDIES   IIJ  GEItEKAL   HISTORY. 

The  Teutonic  Barbarians.  —  Continued. 

Love  of  independence. 

Insecurity  of  society. 

Strength  and  influence  of  women. 

Generous  hospitality ;  scorn  of  manual  (serf)  labor. 

Ideal,  —  warrior. 
Race-Relationship,  Aryan:  seen  in  organizations,  vocabulary,  myths, 

ideas. 

Although  this  is  a  short  study,  it  should  be  treated  with 
marked  care,  since  we  now  meet  a  fundamentally  new  type  of 
societ}'.  Ancient  Greece  and  Rome  were  "city-states,"^  the 
powers  of  modern  Europe  are  "  country-states."^  The  history 
of  the  former  began  in  an  Acropolis  or  Capitol ;  that  of  the 
latter  starts  from  the  village  and  the  canton  ;  the  city-state 
was  an  independent  unit ;  the  village  and  the  canton  are  related 
b}'  their  organization  to  a  larger  area  and  population  than  their 
own.  These  differences  developed  greater,  but  at  first  the 
resemblances  between  the  primitive  groups  of  Teutons,  Greeks, 
and  Romans  were  more  pronounced  than  their  differences. 
Even  that  fundamental  fact  in  the  Teutonic  village,  the  com- 
mon possession  of  land  apportioned  b}'  the  majority  votes  of 
the  marks-men,  seems  to  be  matched  by  the  division  of  public 
lands  among  the  Roman  citizens  ;  although,  in  the  former  case, 
the  matter  was  far  more  closely  connected  with  the  very  foun- 
dation of  the  state,  and  the  land  was  not  only  divided,  but 
managed  by  the  mark-moot.  But  positive  and  unquestioned 
resemblances  are  to  be  found  in  the  assemblies.  Thus  the 
Teutonic  assembly  of  chiefs  matched  the  Homeric  assembly  of 
Elders,  the  Areopagus,  the  various  senates ;  to  the  mark-moot 
corresponded  the  Agora,  the  Ekklesia,  the  Centuries,  and  the 
Tribes ;  everywhere  appeared  the  kinship-bond  and  the  patri- 
archal family.  Between  magistrates  it  is  more  difficult  to  draw 
the  parallel,  since  the  god -born  king  among  the  Teutons  seems 
at   first  subordinate  to  thef  warlike  chief  whom  a  tribe   may 

1  These  terms  are  borrowed  from  Prof.  J.  R.  Seeley. 


STUDY  ON  THE  TEUTONIC  BARBARIANS.       67 

choose  to  follow.  This  determination  of  rank  by  might  in 
war  finds  illustration  again  in  the  fact  that  admission  to  the 
full  political  and  military  status  of  a  Teuton  was  onl}'  won  by 
proved  ability  in  arms,  although  Teutonic  birth  gave  the  first 
right  to  the  Teutonic  name ;  and  the  kinship-bond  had  been  so 
purely  preserved,  that,  to  Tacitus,  the  people  appeared  of  pure, 
unmingled  race.  Once  admitted  to  full  Teutonic  privileges, 
however,  the  individual  found  himself  a  free  and  equal  member 
of  a  democratic  community. 

Throughout  this  work  the  teacher  should  keep  it  well  before 
the  mind  of  the  pupil  that,  in  a  more  special  sense  than  before, 
he  is  studying  the  origin  of  his  own  people  and  kin-folk,  of  his 
own  ancestors  in  direct  lineage.  The  following  little  table  will 
show  him  how  we  stand  in  the  great  Aryan  relationship  :  — 

EUROPEAN   ARYAN   STOCK. 

Keltic:  Irish,  Scotch,  Welsh. 

Teutonic :  Germans,  English,  Scandinavians,  Americans. 

Slavic :  Russians,  Servians,  and  other  Christian  peoples  of  the  Balkan 

peninsula,  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
Greeco-Italian :  The  Greeks  and  Romans  of  antiquity. 

Since  the  directions  and  dates  of  the  early  Aryan  migrations 
'ire  still  in  the  field  of  theory,  it  is  best  for  the  teacher, 
while  allowing  surmise,  to  discourage  positive  statements. 
That  the  migrations  must  have  antedated  1000  b.c.  is  sure 
enough,  from  the  fact  of  the  then-established  Greek,  Italian, 
and  Keltic  peoples,  fully  separated  by  speech  and  habits. 
Geographical  distribution,  again,  points  with  apparent  clearness 
to  a  general  movement  from  the  region  of  the  Black  Sea,  although 
the  question  of  the  original  home  of  the  Aryans  is  by  no  means 
settled.  For  a  complete  and  recent  discussion  of  the  whole 
Aryan  question,  see  Dr.  O.  Schrader's  "Prehistoric  Antiqui- 
ties of  the  Aryan  Peoples."  Translated  by  Jevons,  London, 
1890.  We  have  some  evidence  in  the  common  vocabulary  of 
the  house  and  field  for  maintaining  that,  before  their  separa- 


68  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

tion,  the  Aryans  already  had  in  common  possession  the  arts  of 
agriculture,  and  some  primitive  form  of  navigation  ;  that  tlieir 
flocks  supplied  the  wool  they  wove  and  wore,  while  their  herds 
performed  for  them  the  labors  of  the  field,  and  furnished  them 
the  products  of  the  dairy,  which,  with  ground  grain,  made  the 
staples  of  their  food. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  "Work.  —  A  visit  to 
the  primitive  Aryans  before  their  separation  into  the  various  Em'o- 
pean  races.  The  mark-moot  and  the  New  England  town  meeting. 
Compare  the  Teutonic  ideal  of  womanhood  with  our  own.  Reflec- 
tions of  a  Teutonic  prisoner  of  Julius  Caesar  on  what  he  saw  at  Rome. 
The  Aryan  bonds  of  union. 


C.  11.   THE  CHRISTIAN  EMPIRE.  —  OONSTANTINE  TO 
CHARLEMAGNE. 

This  division  of  the  imperial  history  at  the  name  and  date  of 
Constantine  is  popular  rather  than  accurate  ;  although,  as  the 
founder  of  Constantinople,  he  appeared  to  the  popular  mind  as 
the  founder  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  yet  Diocletian  had  in  realit}' 
been  the  first  thus  to  divide  the  Roman  dominion.  Led  to 
victory  and  converted,  as  he  maintained,  by  the  sign  of  the 
cross,  and  the  first  of  the  emperors  to  give  Christianity  high 
rank  in  the  faiths  of  the  Empire,  Constantine  has  naturally  been 
considered  the  founder  of  its  temporal  power,  although  it  did 
not  become  the  legal  faith  of  Rome  until  the  days  of  Theo- 
dosius.  But  since  great  and  stirring  events  and  influential 
myths  have  gathered  about  the  name  of  Constantine,  and  since 
the  great  changes  attributed  to  him  did  in  reality  receive  from 
him  their  greatest  impetus,  it  has  seemed  best  for  the  purposes 
of  a  popular  text-book  to  take  advantage  of  the  popular 
tendency  to  link  the  great  events  of  an  age  with  its  greatest 
name. 

After  476  no  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  Eastern  Empire 
than  is  necessary  in  order  thoroughly  to  understand  the  general 


CHRISTIAN    EMPIRE    UNDER    ROMAN   CONTROL.  69 

history  of  Europe  ;  for,  from  that  time,  it  follows  its  inevitable 
tendency  to  become  an  Oriental  state,  tempered  and  colored  bv 
the  Greek  culture. 


II.  A.   THE  OHEISTIAN   EMPIEE   UTOEE  EOMAN  OONTEOL. 

The  studies  on  pp.  231-250,  inclusive,   may  be  summarized 
as  follows  :  — 

CHRISTIAN  EMPIRE.  —  CONST ANTINE  TO  ODOVAKER  AND 
THEODORIC. 

Organization  of  State :  Oriental  despotisin. 
Centred 

at  Rome  and  Constantinople, 
in  persons  of  ijie  emperors. 
Supported  by 

forced  taxes, 
barbarian  armies. 

favor  of  privileged,  powerful  classes,  — 
officials, 
soldiers, 
clergy. 
Organization  of  Church  :  Parallel  to,  and  united  with  that  of  the  state. 
Centred 

at  Rome  and  Constantinople, 
in  hands  of  bishops  and  emperors. 
Based  on  and  supported  by 

the  belief  and  trust  of  men. 
conversion  of  barbarian  masses. 
Goths. 
Visigoths. 
Irish, 
imperial  edicts  ^  (suppression  of  Paganism), 
favor  of  the  poor,  oppressed,  neglected  majority. 

1  As  Pontifex  Maximus,  the  emperor  was  naturally  regarded  as  the  legal 
and  temporal  head  of  the  church. 


70  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Christian  Empire.  —  Continued. 
Marked  by 

internal  unity,  resulting  from 
suppression  of  heresy, 
orthodox  standard  of  faith,  — 
Council  of  Nice,  325  a.d. 
acquirement  by  bishops  of 
privilege, 
wealth. 

judicial  power, 
spirit  and  forms  of  democracy. 
Characteristics  of  Period: 

Growth  of  Teutonic  power 
caused  by 

constitution  of  armies,  composed  of  and  officered 

by  barbarians, 
settlement  of  Teutons  as  laborers,  and  owners  of 
imperial  soil  in  Gaul,  Italy,  Spain,  and  the 
lands  of  the  Danube, 
culminating  in  so-called  "  Fall  of  Western  Empire." 
shaped  by  Roman  influence  in 

religious  organization  and  faith, 
military  and  political  organization, 
ideals  (see  speech  of  Adolphus,  p.  249). 
Pervading  influence  and  power  of  Christianity, 
seen  in 

organization. 

persecution  of  Paganism. 

law. 

predominant  taste  for  religious  literature. 

Arian  controversy.^ 

1  The  intensity  with  whicli  men  were  interested  in  theology  is  best  seen 
in  that  large  fact  of  the  irreconcilable  hostility  of  the  Arian  barbarian 
and  the  orthodox  provincial.  That  this  hostility  was  primarily  religious 
is  proved  by  the  fact  that  in  Gaul,  during  the  next  period,  the  orthodox 
barbarian  Franks  easily  mingled  witli  tlie  ortliodox  provincials.  This  vio- 
lent hostility  thoroughly  justified  to  the  men  of  that  time  the  attempts  of 
emperors  and  councils  to  enforce  that  unity  of  belief  which  meant  both 
peace  and  power.  Compare  with  the  feeling  often  roused  in  modern  times 
between  Protestants  and  Catholics, 


CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE   UNDER   ROMAN   CONTROL.  71 

the  new  saint-ideal,  resulting  in  monastic  organiza- 
tion. 
new  materials  (biblical  and  religious),  in 
art  and  literature.^ 
mingled  with  pagan  and  heathen  ideas, 
employed  to 

humanize  law. 

modify  absolutism  (Theodosius  and  Ambrose), 
protect  the  poor  and  oppressed. 
Intellectual  leadership  of  East, 
seen  in 

predominating  proportion  of  literary  centres,  — 
Alexandria,  Athens. 
Antioch,  Caesarea. 
origin  of  literary  men. 
origin  of  monastic  ideal  and  of  heresies. 
Moral  decay  of  Kome, 
seen  in 

imperial  absolutism  (see  laws), 
corruption  (bribery)  and  extravagance  of  courts ;  .*. 
corruption  and  extravagance  of  fashionable  life, 
servility,  superstition,  idleness, 
gluttony  and  luxury, 
resulting  in 

hatred  of  Rome  by  her  own  subjects, 
oppression  of  over-taxed  provinces. 

All  the  facts  of  this  obscure  but  most  important  period 
clustered  about  three  centres,  —  the  church,  the  Empire,  and 
the  barbarians.  These  three  centres  were,  however,  connected 
in  vital  relations.  The  church  and  the  barbarians  took  to 
themselves  all  that'was  yet  alive  and  of  worth  in  the  decaying 
Empire.  Her  intellectual  and  moral  energy  passed  to  the 
church ;    her  military  and  political  power  to  the  barbarians  ; 

1  Although  in  its  beginnings  Christian  art  could  claim  neither  beauty 
nor  truth,  it  was  nevertheless  original  in  its  materials  and  impulses.  In 
this  originality  lay  the  promise  of  the  new  development  and  inspiration 
which  was  to  culminate  in  Raphael  and  Michael  Augelo. 


72  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

this  receives  fine  illusti'ation  from  the  fact  that  in  the  fourth 
and  fifth  centuries  of  her  history,  the  great  names  were  either 
those  of  bishops  and  popes,  or  those  of  war-chiefs  and  generals. 
The  bishops  and  popes  belonged  to  the  civilized  provincials, 
while  the  generals  and  war-chiefs  were  pure  barbarian  leaders.^ 
This  one  fact  shows  how  the  force  of  the  Empire,  leaving  its 
old  forms,  deadened  by  despotism,  and  its  old  populations, 
spoiled  and  lielpless  through  luxury  and  moral  decay,  was 
urging  its  way  into  fresh  forms  and  among  new  peoples. 

So  long  as  the  Empire  had  appeared  to  rule  for  the  greatest 
benefit  of  the  greatest  number,  the  sting  of  despotism  was  con- 
cealed ;  but  in  the  fifth  century  it  was,  in  the  sight  of  all  men, 
an  organization  managed  in  behalf  of  the  ease,  wealth,  power, 
and  pleasure  of  the  emperor  and  his  officials.  In  this  regard, 
it  was  a  striking  contrast  to  the  Athens  of  Pericles,  or  to  Punic 
Rome,  where  the  state  was  organized  in  behalf  of  the  whole 
body  of  citizens.  This  contrast  was  still  further  heightened  b}' 
the  fact  that  it  was  precisely  on  the  whole  body  of  citizens  that 
the  burdens  of  government  fell;  the  "  curiales,"  the  "  decuri- 
ons,"  the  free,  but  untitled  citizens  of  Rome  were  just  those 
whom  she  deprived  of  arms  for  self-defense,  and  from  whom 
she  extorted  the  taxes  demanded  to  support  the  pomp  and  waste 
of  four  courts,  and  the  establishments  of  countless  officials,  to 
say  nothing  of  the  justifiable  charges  of  a  goverament  defending 
an  enormous  frontier  b}'  professional  troops. 

When  the  imperial  government  became  so  thoroughly  a 
matter  of  routine,  its  excellence  still  depended  partly  on  the 
personal  character  of  the  emperor,  but  more  on  his  power  to 
select  men  fit  to  serve  him  as  generals,  secretaries,  judges, 
since  by  these  subordinates  the  business  of  the  Empire  was 
chiefly  done. 


1  Yet  it  is  interesting  to  note,  that  on  the  military  greatness  of  the  bar- 
barian, Rome  depended  for  her  strength ;  while  the  intellectual  and  moral 
superiority  of  the  Roman  bishops  was  to  spread  civilization  through  the 
wider  barbarian  world. 


CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE   UNDER   ROMAN   CONTROL.  73 

So  long  as  her  soldiers  remained  true  and  obedient,  and  her 
lands  productive,  the  Empire  could  hardly  perish ;  since,  with 
money  and  troops,  with  the  favor  of  the  bishops  who  led  opin- 
ion and  of  the  officials  who  executed  law,  it  possessed  essential 
strength.  But  as  her  soldiery  was  drawn  more  and  more  from 
barbarian  peoples,  and  so  became  less  and  less  in  sympathy  with 
the  habits  and  ideas  of  the  Empire,  and  as,  by  slave-culture, 
absentee  landlords,  and  a  constantly  increasing  tax-pressure, 
the  utility  of  her  lands  was  gradually  destroyed,  the  change  of 
476  was  inevitable. 

The  teacher  must  not  allow  the  popular  ideas  of  the  ' '  Fall  of 
the  Roman  Empire  "  to  influence  him  too  strongly  in  his  views 
of  this  change,  which  was  in  its  reality  a  change  in  the  propor- 
tions of  population,  and  a  shifting  of  power  rather  than  a  con- 
quest. As  soldiers  and  as  laborers,  the  barbarians  had  long  been 
entering  the  Empire,  until,  at  476,  they  composed  the  better  and 
stronger  part  of  her  fighting  and  working  people.  For,  as  the 
love  of  leisure  and  pleasure  had  rendered  the  arduous  labors 
of  the  camp  distasteful  to  the  Romans,  these  had  fallen  natu- 
rally to  great  warrior  bands,  who  gladly  entered  a  service  so 
congenial  to  their  love  of  warfare.  So  soon,  however,  as  the 
strength  of  conscious  organization  was  felt  by  armies  practi- 
cally barbarian,  they  naturally  demanded  recognized  place  and 
power  in  the  Roman  territory  and  among  Roman  officials,  nor 
was  there  any  force  to  withstand  them.  Although,  in  reality-, 
political  as  well  as  military  power  had  now  passed  into  the 
hands  of  the  Teutons,  and  the  leadership  of  Western  Europe 
was  acknowledged  to  be  theirs,  still  to  a  contemporary  Roman 
this  change  could  not  have  seemed  so  profound  or  startling  as 
we  now  know  it  to  have  been  ;  he  would  have  stated  the  superfi- 
cial apparent  fact  that  through  the  weakness  of  the  western  gov- 
ernment and  the  influence  of  the  soldiery  of  Odovaker,  both  parts 
of  the  Empire  were  again  united  under  the  eastern  emperor, 
who  had  now  commissioned  barbarian  generals  not  only  with 
the  command  of  the  legions,  but  also  with  the  political  manage- 
ment of  the  western  provinces.      By  the  provincials,  indeed, 


74  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

such  a  change  could  not  have  been  greatly  deplored,  since  the 
Empire  had  become  their  oppressor  rather  than  protector,  and 
since,  according  to  Salvian,  at  least  (p.  248),  many  of  them 
had  already  expressed  their  preference  for  barbarian  rule. 

In  all  this,  Rome  but  reaped  as  she  had  sown.  The  new 
ideals  of  life  and  morals,  which  entered  Rome  in  the  first 
century  b.c,  naturally  culminated  in  such  a  picture  as  that 
drawn  by  Ammianus  (p.  244) ,  and  in  the  transfer  of  her  power 
to  the  monk  and  the  barbarian  ;  in  other  words,  to  men  whose 
ideal  was  the  self-denying  saint,  or  the  warrior  who  could  die 
on  the  hard- fought  field. 

Nevertheless,  Rome  had  so  long  mastered  the  civilized  world 
with  law  and  the  barbarian  hordes  with  fear,  that  even  in  the 
midst  of  the  weak  confusion  of  the  fifth  century  she  seemed  to 
the  church  the  earthly  prototype  of  the  *'City  of  God,"  while 
barbarian  ambition  looked  to  her  as  the  shining  centre  of  the 
world,  the  proudest  source  whence  it  could  win  its  titles  of  com- 
mand. This  name  that  had  gathered  to  itself  for  more  than  a 
thousand  years  all  that  the  world  contained  of  strength  and 
beauty  and  order,  did  not  easily  lose  its  deeply  rooted  power ; 
a  power  that  must  be  reckoned  with  at  least  to  the  days  of 
Charlemagne. 

In  considering  the  organization  of  the  church,  two  funda- 
mental facts  must  constantly  be  remembered ;  one  is,  that 
Christianity  became  the  state  faith  of  the  Empire,  the  historical 
successor  of  Paganism.^  The  old  temples  were  turned  into 
churches ;  state  privileges  and  revenues  passed  from  the  old 
orders  of  priests  to  the  new ;  the  whole  organized  framework 
of  the  Empire,  with  its  central  powers  at  Rome  or  Constanti- 

1  The  extract  given  from  the  "City  of  God,"  p.  246,  gives  a  curious 
illustration  of  the  fact  that,  to  the  men  of  the  fourth  century,  not  only  had 
one  church  and  belief  displaced  another,  but  that  actual  supernatural 
powers,  strong  to  work  mischief  to  men,  —  deified  evil  spirits,  in  fact,  —  had 
been  overthrown  by  the  one  true,  beneficent  God.  Men  no  longer  wor- 
shipped these  old  gods,  but  they  still  believed  in  them  and  feared  them  ai 
devils  and  demons. 


CHRISTIAN   EMPIRE   UNDER   ROMAN   CONTROL.          75 

nople,  with  its  municipalities  acting  as  mediators  between  the 
provinces  and  the  emperor,  with  its  imperial  Pontifex  Maximus, 
with  its  network  of  roads  and  posts,  became  the  framework  of 
the  church ;  from  this  point  of  view,  the  church  appeared  like 
a  centralized  hierarchy.  But  this  other  fact  must  always  be 
remembered,  that  the  strong  officials  of  the  church,  the  bishops, 
owed  their  power  to  popular  elections,  so  that  the  government 
of  the  church  might  be  described  as  a  democracy,  acting  through 
a  strongly  organized  centralization. 

That  Rome  should  become  a  more  strongly  pronounced  centre 
than  Constantinople  is  not  surprising  when  we  notice  that 
Rorfie  had  not  a  single  powerful,  long-established  cit}'  in  the 
west  as  her  rival,  unless  we  except  Carthage,  while  Constanti- 
nople was  the  child  of  yesterday  to  Antioch,  Alexandria,  or 
Damascus.  Again,  the  power  of  the  emperors  after  Constan- 
tine  more  decidedly  centred  at  the  eastern  than  the  western 
capital ;  hence  the  power  of  the  Roman  bishop,  left  uutram- 
meled  by  the  imperial  presence,  grew  more  freely  and  strongly 
than  that  of  the  bishop  of  Constantinople  ;  and  again,  the  name 
of  Rome  carried  with  it  through  all  the  West  a  power  of  mighty 
and  ancient  tradition,  in  which  the  "  New  Rome,"  Constanti- 
nople, was  entirely  wanting. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  Complaint 
of  a  decurion.  The  power  of  the  church  at  476  a.d.  compared  with 
that  of  the  Empire.  Constantine  and  Julian.  The  political  value  of 
a  fixed  creed.  Famous  barbarians  of  the  later  empire.  What  had 
the  barbarian  to  give  to  the  Empire  ?  Journal  of  a  Roman  Christian, 
ransomed  by  St.  Ambrose  from  the  Germans  beyond  the  Rhine. 
St.  Anthony.  What  resemblances  between  the  saint-ideal  of  the 
fourth  and  fifth  centuries  and  the  warrior-ideal  ?  The  conquests  of 
the  church.  Private  reflections  of  Claudian  on  his  patron  Stilicho. 
Compare  life  at  Rome,  in  the  days  of  Ammianus,  with  that  in  the 
days  of  Cincinnatus. 


76  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


II.  BandC.    THE  WEST  UNDER  BAKBAEIAN  OONTKOL; 
EMPIKE   or   OHARLEMAaNE. 

Summarize  the  studies,  pp.  250-285,  somewhat  as  follows  :  — 

CHRISTIAN  EMPIRE,  470-814.  — ODOVAKER- CHARLEMAGNE. 

Organization  of  State,  476-800  a.d. 

In  East :  Oriental  despotism,  centred  at  Constantinople. 
In  West :  Delegation  or  abandonment  of  imperial  power  to 
bishops  of  Rome. 

barbarian  kings  and  generals  in  Spain,  France,  Italy, 
Britain,  Africa.^ 
Organization  of  State  under  Charlemagne. 

Restoration  of  name  and  style  of  Western  emperors. 
Union  of  spiritual  and  temporal  powers  of  pope  and  emperor  in 
"  Holy  Roman  Empire."  '^ 
Organization  of  Church. 

Development  of  centralized  papal  power. 
Development  of  monasticism  {Benedictine  order). 
Characteristics  of  Period  in  the  Empire. 
Growing  separation  of  East  and  West.^ 

1  Ahhough  this  power  was  a  delegated  one,  the  barbarian  leaders,  as  gen- 
erals of  well-disciplined  forces,  held  the  actual  military  power  of  Europe  ; 
while,  as  titled  officers  of  the  Empire,  they  gained  the  traditional  power  of 
its  name;  add  to  this  that  they  were  generally  the  chosen  or  hereditary 
native  commanders  of  their  armies. 

2  The  mosaic  of  St.  John,  in  Lateran  (p.  275),  shows  pictorially  the  fun- 
damental ideas  that  underlay  this  Holy  Roman  Empire.  By  their  size  and 
relative  position  pope  and  emperor  appear  as  equals,  inferior  to  their  Lord 
Christ,  from  whom  they  take  their  different  powers  as  his  delegates  on 
earth.  The  account  of  the  "Crowning  of  Charlemagne  "  a<;ain  (p.  274), 
clearly  shows  that  to  himself  and  the  men  of  his  day  Charlemagne  was  the 
'•anointed  of  the  Lord,"  and  the  source  of  his  power  divine,  like  that  of 
the  warrior-kings  of  Israel. 

^  After  the  Mohammedan  conquests  we  find  Islam  dividing,  like  the 
Roman  Empire,  into  an  eastern  and  a  western  part.  Is  it  not  possible  that 
the  old  differences  thus  made  themselves  once  more  felt  ? 


THE   WEST   UNDER    BAliBARIAN   CONTROL.  77 

Favored  by 
I  difference  in  language  ^  and  culture. 

inability  of  East  to  hold  and  govern  the  West ;   .*. 
imperial  abandonment  of  Rome  to  ecclesiastic  and 
barbarian  control. 
Culminating  in 

crowning  of  Charlemagne  by  pope,  800. 
Predominance  of  ecclesiastical  power  in  the  West. 
Caused  or  favored  by 

imperial  weakness  and  neglect, 
conversion  of  barbarians  ^  ("  conquests  of  Christian 
Emjjire"), — 
Goths. 

Vandals.  ^ 

Irish. 
Franks. 
Burgundians. 
Saxons  in  England. 
Saxons  in  Germany  (Charlemagne). 
Scotch, 
protective  attitude   of  church   toward  poor  and 

oppressed, 
monopoly  of  Roman  civilization,  centred  in 
monasteries. 
Resulting  or  appearing  in 

temporal  power  of  popes  and  bishops,  — 
political, 
military, 
legal  and  judicial. 

1  Although  modern  languages  began  to  assert  themselves,  still  Latin 
was  the  tongue  of  the  thinking  and  governing  classes  and  the  language  of 
literature. 

2  It  is  not  generally  sufficiently  insisted  upon  that  while  the  "barbari- 
ans "  overran  the  Empire,  Christianity  almost  at  once  permeated  the  bar- 
barians, thus  subjecting  the  strongest  peoples  of  Europe  to  the  religious 
organization  and  faith  of  the  later  Empire ;  this  subjection  was  aided  by 
the  impression  which  the  Roman  Empire  and  the  Roman  church  still  made 
upon  the  barbarians  through  its  splendor,  wealth,  and  titles  (see  p.  273, 
Conversion  of  Clovis). 


78  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Christian  Empire.  —  Continued. 

development  of   asceticism,  embodied  Jn  monas- 
tic organization, — 

idealizing  self-denial  and  benevolwnce. 
opposing  violence  and  selfishness^ 
encouraging  labor  and  learning. 
union  of  West  in 
faith, 
language, 
law. 

ideals  (monastic,  saintly), 
religious  character  of  intellectual  interests, 
civilizing  influences  (largely  monastic)  ia   direc- 
tion of 

literature  (chiefly  monkish  history  and  lit- 
erature), 
music.i 

law  (humanizing  it), 
industrial  and  decorative  arts,  science, 
morality  and  humanity, 
agriculture. 
Hindered  by 

mixture  and  corruption  of  Christianity  by 
paganism  (demonology),  and  heresy, 
misunderstanding  of  its  teachings  {Clovis). 
Culminating  in  establishment  of 
"Holy  Roman  Empire." 
Romanizing  of  the  Teuton  in 
religion  —  Christianity, 
language  and  literature, 
law. 

military  tactics. 

agriculture  and  industry  (monasteries). 
Provincial  confusion  and  misery. 
Caused  by 

weak  government. 

barbarian  attack,  invasion,  and  change. 

1  It  will  be  noted  that  music,  painting  and  the  arts  of  decoration  owe 
their  modern  impulse  to  the  mcdiseval  clmrch. 


THE  WEST  TJNDEU  BARBARIAN  CONTROL.  79 

Saracenic  invasion. 

prevalence  of  personal  rather  than  territorial  law.i 
Resulting  in 

weakness  of  art  and  literature. 

corruption  of  Lathi  (begins  to  change  to  French, 

Italian,  Spanish), 
strengthening  of  Teutonic  provincial  governments. 
Growth  of  vital  power  in  West,  seen  in 

production  of  great  men  (bishops  and  warriors), 
military  and  political  vigor  of  the  Teuton, 2  culminating 

in  Charlemagne, 
appearance  of  Western  tongues  in  literature, — 
English  ^ 

French  >  indicating 
Irish      ) 
intellectual  advance  of  peoples, 
attempts  at  legal  order. 
Rapid  growth  of  Mohammedan  faith  and  empire. 
Caused  or  favored  by 

simplicity  of  belief. 

heretical  disaffection  of  Egypt  and  Syria  toward 
Constantinople.^ 
Resulting  in 

imperial  loss  of 

Syria,  —  Damascus,  Antioch. 
Egypt,  —  Memphis  (Cairo),  Thebes. 
Africa.    Carthage. 
Checked  by  Spain. 

orthodox  defenders,  — 

Leo  at  Constantinople. 
Charles  Martel  at  Touks. 

1  According  to  personal  law,  a  man  is  judged  by  the  law  of  his  own 
people,  wherever  he  may  be  ;  according  to  territorial  law,  he  is  judged  by 
the  law  of  the  land  in  which  he  dwells,  no  matter  whence  he  came. 

2  This  vigor  had  a  double  source,  —  the  unbroken,  warlike  tastes  of  the 
Teuton  and  his  heritage  of  Roman  military  tactics. 

^  Compare  the  cases  of  Africa  and  Spain,  which  had  been  or  were  still 
under  the  power  of  Arians,  who  could  easily  accept  the  bare  monotheism 
of  Mohammed, 


80  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  points  made  from  study  to  study  in  regard  to  Moham- 
medanism had  better  be  tabulated,  as  far  as  possible,  by  them- 
selves, in  order  to  preserve  unity  of  view.  The  following  is 
offered  as  suggestive  :  — 

THE   SARACENS. 
Conquests,  Religious. 
Government,  Despotic  Theocracy  (Omar,  Haroun ;  see  relation  of 

palace  and  mosque,  p.  281). 
Religious  Doctrines. 
Monotheism. 
Divine  inspiration 

of  prophets,  —  Moses,  Christ,  Mohammed. 
of  Koran,  —  revealed  to  Mohammed. 
Fore-ordained  necessity  of  all  events  (fatalism ).i 
Immortality  of  the  soul. 

Future  rewards  and  punishments  (of  material  sort).^ 
Religious  Duties. 

Prayer,  fasting. 
Alms-giving,  pilgrimage. 

Moral  life  according  to  Moslem  standards,  which 
allows  polygamy,  .-. 
produces  subjection  of  women,  modified  by 

natural  and  religious  feeling, 
condemns  drunkenness  and  gaming, 
condemns  cruelty  to  animals, 
preaches  charity,^  faithfulness,  justice,  resignation. 
Civilization,  at  first  simple,  pastoral,  and  religious  (Omar),  becomes 
highly  artistic,  scientific,  and  material  (Haroun-al-Raschid), 
Centering  at* 

Bagdad.  Cairo. 

Damascus.  Cordova. 

1  To  these  doctrines  are  generally  ascribed  a  good  part  of  tlie  lighting 
energy  of  the  Saracenic  forces. 

2  The  practical  effect  of  this  morality  may  be  seen  in  the  moderate 
treatment  of  Eastern  Christians  (see  pp.  279,  280). 

*  Note  also  the  Mohammedan  possession  of  Antioch  and  Alexandria, 
and  of  Assyria,  Egypt,  and  Persia,  with  their  old  civilized  centres. 


THE   WEST  UNDER  BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  81 

Developing 

Moorish  architecture  and  ornament,  — 

horseshoe  arch,  dome  (compare  St.  Sophia). 

minaret  (spire),  arabesque.^ 

trefoil  and  quatrefoil. 
scientific  study  of 

mathematics.2 

astronomy.  2 

medicine.2 

philosophy  (Aristotle), 
commercial  intercourse  of  East  and  West, 
industrial  and  agricultural  activity ;  weaving,  embroidery, 

metal-work,  pottery,  dyeing,  inlaid  work  in  wood 

and  marble,  horticulture,  leather  work  (Morocco), 

manufacture  of  figured  silk  (damask). 
Springing  from 

Greek  and  Oriental  sources. 

Two  things  beyond  all  others  marked  this  age.  The  first 
was  the  pervading  and  progressive  power  of  religion  ;  in  the 
West,  the  church  predominated  as  a  political  and  legal  as  well 
as  an  intellectual  and  moral  influence ;  in  the  East,  political 
differences  were  confirmed  by  heresies,  until  at  last  all  were 
alike  swept  away  by  the  irresistible  tide  of  Mohammedanism 
and  its  simple  monotheistic  faith.  The  second  thing  was  the 
mixture  of  influences  produced  by  the  constant  mixture  of 
peoples  ;  the  church  gave  to  the  barbarian  the  civilization  as 
well  as  the  faith  of  Rome,  and  her  monks,  travelling  as  mission- 
aries or  envoys,  from  end  to  end  of  Europe,  did  much  to  create 

1  The  beauty  of  the  arabesque,  and  of  Moorish  work  in  general,  de- 
pends not  only  on  the  skilful  and  intricate  mingling  of  symmetrical 
mathematical  forms,  but  also  upon  delicate  and  brilliant  combinations  of 
color ;  the  former  quality  pleasing  the  mind,  and  the  latter  the  sense.  The 
strict  observance  of  the  second  commandment  having  prevented  any 
development  of  sculpture  or  figure  painting,  the  whole  artistic  talent  of 
the  Moors  was  turned  to  the  lesser  arts  of  pure  decoration,  in  which,  per- 
haps, they  have  never  been  excelled. 

2  Compare  the  Alexandrian  civilization. 


82  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

a  united  Christendom ;  of  these  monks,  there  is  no  better  type 
than  Theodore  of  Tarsus,  a  Greek,  sent  by  the  Roman  bishop 
to  found  the  English  Canterbury  (p.  262).  While  the  church 
penetrated  the  wilderness,  the  peoples  of  the  wilderness  con- 
stantl}'  penetrated  the  Empire  ;  invasion,  settlement,  conversion, 
mingled  old  and  new,  culture  and  barbarism,  good  and  evil ; 
the  church  alone  being  fixed,  little  by  little  mastered  the  con- 
fusion. Perhaps  no  one  thing  better  showed  the  varied  influ- 
ences of  the  time  than  AVestern  law,  which  based  itself  alike  on 
the  written  codes  of  Rome  and  on  Teutonic  custom,  while  both 
were  modified  by  the  ever-present  advice  and  aid  of  the 
bishops. 

In  the  East,  on  the  other  hand,  Islam  was  the  mingling  power, 
which  carried  rude  pastoral  tribes  into  ancient  and  highly 
civilized  lands,  whose  finest  culture  they  made  their  own,  though 
''with  a  difference,"  and  whence  they  conveyed  it  to  the 
farthest  West,  which  was  still  inferior  to  the  East  in  all  material 
and  artistic  ways.^ 

In  the  West,  the  crowning  of  Charlemagne  was  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  growing  separation  of  the  East  and  the  West,  of  the 
developing  temporal  power  of  the  Western  church,  and  of  the 
actual  Teutonic  as  opposed  to  the  nominal  imperial  rule ;  for 
although  the  name  of  Roman  emperor  was  heard  again  in  the 
West,  still  the  "  Holy  Roman  Empire"  embodied  a  revolt,  and 
Charlemagne's  title  was  usurped  ;  the  new  Empire  covered  new 
territories  unknown  to  Roman  rule,  embraced  the  heart  of 
modern  Europe  with  the  Rhine  vallc}'  for  its  centre,  comprised 
new  populations  and  tongues,  held  its  power  as  the  temporal 
arm  of  the  church,  and  as  a  gift  from  its  spiritual  head.     In 

^  Historians  often  contend  that  the  Moors  had  no  original  civilization, 
since  they  took  their  architectural  and  decorative  "  motives  "  from  Con- 
stantinople, Damascus,  or  Persia,  their  science  from  Alexandria  and  Syria, 
their  philosophy  from  Aristotle.  Without  insisting  on  a  decision,  it  may 
be  noted  that  they  so  advanced  or  modified  or  mingled  what  they  took, 
that  they  left  upon  it  such  a  distinctive  mark  of  character  as  to  demand  a 
separate  name  for  what  is  Moorish  or  Arabian. 


THE   WEST   UNDEK    BARBARIAN   CONTROL.  83 

spite  of  these  fuudamental  differeuces,  the  tradition  of  Rome 
was  still  so  strong  as  to  force  her  name  on  any  ruler  who  could 
pretend  to  hold  the  West  together  ;  hence  the  value  of  receiving 
the  imperial  title  from  the  Bishop  of  Rome,  the  only  man  left 
in  Europe,  except  the  Eastern  emperor,  who  could  be  said  to 
represent  in  historic  line  the  authority  of  the  ancient  Empire  ; 
thus  received,  too,  the  imperial  title  gained  the  sanction  of 
religion,  and  the  Empire  could,  as  "Holy,"  claim  the  alliance  of 
all  Christendom ;  from  this  time  on,  the  names  of  Roman  and 
Christian  were  synonymous  in  the  West,  and  from  this  point  of 
view  we  see  the  necessity  which  Charlemagne  felt  of  convert- 
ing the  Saxons  before  incorporating  them  into  his  empire. 

Although  artistic,  poetic,  or  pure  intellectual  genius  was  rare 
in  this  period,  the  fact  was  probably  due  to  the  circumstances 
of  obscurity  and  confusion,  which  marked  the  time,  since  of 
greatness  there  was  no  lack,  but  it  was  a  greatness  that  dis- 
played itself  in  action,  feeling,  and  character  rather  than  in 
vision.  Nevertheless,  I  have  chosen  the  motto  on  p.  228,  be- 
cause, in  spite  of  the  clang  and  movement  of  the  age,  its  real 
strength  lay  in  quiet,  germinal,  partly  unconscious  powers, 
moving  like  leaven  amid  the  troubled  mass. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  "  And  after 
the  fire,  a  still  small  voice."  Clovis,  patrician  of  Rome.  What  causes 
made  the  way  of  the  Mohammedan  conquests  into  the  Empire  compara- 
tively easy  ?  The  strength  of  the  pope.  The  visit  of  St.  Augustine 
to  Britain.  Comparison  of  Augustus,  emperor,  with  Charlemagne, 
emperor.  Was  the  so-called  "  conversion  "  of  the  Saxons  justifiable  ? 
(Debate.)  Why  should  Pope  Gregory  be  called  "  Great "  ?  Reasons 
why  a  Goth  became  a  Benedictine  monk.  Visit  to  Monte  Cassino. 
Why  should  Justinian  be  the  most  famous  emperor  of  this  period? 
The  Mohammedan  bonds  of  union.  The  character  of  Omar.  Journey 
of  Theodore  of  Tarsus  to  England.  The  court  of  Charlemagne.  Why 
should  Charlemagne  become  the  hero  of  western  Europe?  Compare 
Omar  and  Haroun-al-Raschid. 


84  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

EUROPEAN   HISTORY,  814-1880. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Before  the  ninth  centur}-,  the  centre  of  political  interest  lay 
at  Rome  or  Constantinople  ;  but  with  the  death  of  Charlemagne, 
the  power  of  Rome  began  to  fade,  political  interest  began  to 
gather  about  various  national  centres  and  national  heroes,  and 
the  modern  states  of  Europe  began  to  appear  in  undefined  and 
nascent  forms.  Within  two  centuries,  France,  England,  Ger- 
many, Spain,  and  Italy  were  known  and  feared  as  powers. 
From  that  time  on,  the  history  of  Europe  has  presented  a 
complex,  continuous  development  along  original  lines,  though 
starting  from  those  of  antiquity.  For  this  reason,  the  history 
of  more  than  a  thousand  years  is  massed  under  the  single  title 
of  European  a-s  opposed  to  Greek  and  Roman  history. 

From  the  beginning  through,  the  teacher  should  have  well  in 
mind  tlie  great  trends  and  marks  of  the  long  and  complex 
period.  First,  then,  we  have  to  do  with  constantly  enlarging 
political  areas.  Cities  are  no  longer  the  political  units  of 
history,  but  countries,^  and  countries  that  grow  first  to  their 
full  natural  boundaries  in  Europe,  and  then  begin  to  possess 
and  assimilate  the  lands  of  America,  Asia,  and  Africa.  Cities 
still  exist,  not  as  rulers,  but  as  condensed  centres  of  the  popu- 
lation and  labor  of  their  various  countries. 

Not  only  are  the  units  larger^  hut  they  differ  in  their  origin. 
In  antiquity,  the  tribe,  bound  together  by  the  tradition  or  reality 
of  a  common  descent,  was  the  original  unit,  which  grew  by 
successive  adoptions  of  aliens.  A  group  of  related  men  formed 
the  historic  kernel  of  the  state.  From  800  on,  a  parcel  of  land 
possessing  common  interests   forms   this   historic  kernel,   and 

1  For  this  distinction  I  am  indebted  to  Prof.  J.  R.  Seeley. 


EUROPEAN  HISTORY.  85 

gradually  draws  its  inhabitants  together  into  the  nation-unit^ 
which  holds  men  together  by  attachment  to  a  common  father- 
land, as  of  old  they  were  held  together  by  attachment  to  a  com- 
mon ancestor. 

A  third  point  to  be  noted  is  the  development  of  this  unit. 
This  parcel  of  land,  held  at  first  by  many  nobles,  under  the 
nominal  lead  of  a  king,  is,  during  the  mediaeval  period,  the 
cause  of  long  and  hard  contention  between  its  rival  claimants. 
In  the  age  of  the  Renaissance,  this  contention  culminates  in 
the  formation  of  strong,  centralized  monarchies  in  France, 
England,  and  Spain ;  while  in  Germany  and  Italy,  a  multitude 
of  strong  cities  and  rival  princes  rise,  weakening  their  country 
in  behalf  of  their  separate  individualities.  In  the  modern 
period,  both  phases  have  given  place  in  various  ways  to 
strong,  united  nations,  tending  more  and  more  to  popular 
constitutions,  with  a  growing  tendency  to  make  the  state  the 
agent  of  all  common  service,  in  government,  education,  trans- 
portation, and  even  in  more  radical  ways. 

The  fourth  and  last  point  to  be  held  in  mind  is  that,  along 
with  this  development  of  individual  nations,  has  gone  the 
development  of  a  European  commonwealth.  By  the  constantly 
increasing  complex  of  international  relations,  weaving  together 
inextricably  the  interests  of  neighboring  states,  a  Christianized, 
European,  Aryan  unit  has  been  formed  as  against  less  civilized 
continents,  held  b}^  other  faiths  and  peoples. 

These  four  points  all  relate  to  the  political  development 
of  Europe;  I  have  not  thought  it  necessary  to  call  special 
attention  to  the  other  marked  tendencies  of  the  whole  period, 
such  as  the  growth  of  knowledge  and  free  thought,  the  devel- 
opment of  a  popular  material  civilization,  the  acquisition  of 
freedom  in  various  forms  ;  for  while  these  movements  are  of 
the  highest  importance,  they  are  easy  to  see  and  simple  to 
understand. 


STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY, 


A.   EAELT  MEDiaiVAL  PERIOD. —CHARLEMAGNE  TO  THE 
ORtJSADES,  814-1095. 

The  studies  from  p.  291  to  p.  318  inclusive  may  be  summa- 
rized as  follows :  — 

THE   CIVILIZED   WORLD,   814-1095. 

Organizations  of  Period. 

Feudal  units  (fiefs), — 

bound  together  by 
loyalty, 
interest. 

possession  of  and  residence  on  common  land. 
forming  weak  monarchies  in 
France. 
England. 
Spain. 

Italy  and  Germany. 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  — 

temporal,  imperial  powers  embodied  in  emperor, 
spiritual,  sacerdotal  powers  embodied  in  pope. 
Oriental  despotisms  in 

Byzantine  Empire, 
caliphates. 

CharacteristicB  of  Period. 
In  feudal  monarchies. 

Land,  basis  of  power,  seen  in 
,  change  of  law  from  personal  to  territorial. 

service  of  the  inferior  dependent  on  land-grants 

from  the  superior, 
theory  that  king  is  the  land-owner  of  kingdom, 
government  co-extensive  with  estates. 
Growth  of  landed  aristocracy,^  with  strong  class-distinc- 
tions (great  inequality). 

*  Curiously  enough,  this  aristocracy  has  survived  in  its  purest  feudal 
form  in  England,  where  it  was  at  first  constitutionally  most  subject  to  the 
king  (from  1066  onward). 


EARLY   MEDIEVAL   PERIOD.  87 

Decentralization  of  power, 
seen  in 

wars  of  feudal  lords  against  kings, 
control  of  kings  by  feudal  lords, 
numerous  feudal  units, 
resulting  in 

constant  petty  warfare  ("  Truce  of  God  ") . 
Partial,  arbitrary,  and  conflicting  law.i 
Insecurity  of  trade. 
Loss  of  individual  liberty. 
In  Holy  Roman  Empire. 

Weakness  of  imperialism  (no  land). 

Power  based  on  religious  faith  (see  imperial  style  and  title). 

Centralization  of  power  in  hands  of  pope,  culminating  in 

Hildehrand. 
Closer  definition  of  German  frontier,  caused  by  invasion 
and  threatened  invasion. 
In  Islam, 

Development  of  extravagant  Oriental  courts  and  mon- 
archies. 
Growth  of  a  scientific,  material  civilization,  based  on 

Oriental  and  Greek  culture. 
Formation  of  new  Mohammedan  powers,  — 
Turkey  in  Asia. 
Egypt. 
In  England. 

Royal  power  strengthened  by 

constant  foreign  invasion,  uniting  king  and  barons 

and  people  into  a  nation, 
"immediate"  oaths   demanded  by  William  the 
Conqueror.2 
Growth  of  English  independence  of  continent  seen  in 
literature  (English). 

1  Hence  it  often  happened  that  in  order  to  gain  justice  from  a  power- 
ful baron,  it  was  absolutely  necessary  to  employ  force  against  him,  since 
there  was  no  executive  strong  enough  to  compel  men  to  obey  any  general 
law,  even  were  such  a  law  in  existence. 

2  Before  the  time  of  William  the  Conqueror,  the  thanes  seem  to  have 
had  more  constitutional  power  of  interfering  with  general  politics  than  the 
French  barons.  This  power  they  seem  to  have  retained  while  the  "imme- 
diate "  oaths  demanded  by  William  deprived  them  of  absolute  independence. 


88  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  Civilized  World.  814-1095.  —  Continued. 
In  general. 

Great  confusion 

arising  from 

barbarian  invasions  and  attacks  from 
Northmen  in 

Sicily,  Italy. 
France,  England. 
Turks  and  Hungarians  in 

Holy  Roman  Empire. 
Byzantine  Empire. 
Islam, 
feudalism, 
causing 

insecurity  of  trade, 
insecurity  of  travel  (pilgrims), 
little  intellectual  and  artistic  life, 
mixture  of  barbarism  and  civilization. 
Formation  of  new  states  and  powers,  — 

Hungary,  Normandy,  Austria,^  Prussia, ^  Kingdom 

of  Two  Sicilies,  in  Europe. 
Turkey  2  in  Asia. 

General  mixture  of  European  blood, — 

in  France :  Roman,  Kelt,^  Frank,  Norman. 

in  England :  Kelt,  Saxon,  Normaiv. 

in  Italy:  Roman,  Kelt,  Greek,  Lombard,  Norman, 

Arab, 
in  Spain :  Kelt,  Roman,  Goth,  Arab. 

1  I  have  asked  what  would  account  for  the  long  succession  of  strong 
rulers  in  these  two  states ;  may  not  the  answer  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
the  founders  of  the  Houses  of  Austria  and  Brandenburg  were  necessarily 
the  picked  men  of  their  whole  generation  for  vigorous  physique  and 
positive  character  ? 

2  Compare  the  entrance  of  the  Turks  into  Islam  with  that  of  the  Teu- 
tons into  the  Empire.  In  both  cases  the  conquerors  were,  in  turn,  subdued 
by  the  faith  and  culture  of  their  subjects. 

*  It  should  here  be  noted  that  previous  to  the  Roman  conquests  the 
Kelts  were  the  leading  people  in  France,  Spain,  and  England,  while  the/ 
had  a  strong  hold  on  tlie  best  part  of  Italy. 


EARLY  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  89 

Complete  separation  of  East  and  West,i  — 

in  government:  '■'■Holy  Roman  Empir-e." 
in  religion:  "  Schisjn  of  the  Church." 
Traces  of  Greek  influence  in  West,  seen  in 
literature  (John  Scotus). 
architecture  (St.  Mark's). 
The  church  strongest  power  in  Europe,  — 
because  of 

unity  of  government  (strong  papacy) . 

unity  of  language  (Latin). 

unity  of   faith  (new  barbarian   kingdoms, 

Christian), 
possession  of  civilization, — 
literature,  art. 
law,  industries, 
hold  on  the  minds  of  men  through  fear  of 
excommunication,  .*. 
eternal  damnation, 
democratic  spirit  and  organization 
seen  in 

relation  to  temporal  powers  (see  titles  of 

emperor  and  kings), 
assumption  of   military  and  governmental 
powers  (see  "  Truce  of  God  "  and  call  to 
the  crusades), 
prevalent  impulse  to  pilgrimage. 
Traces  of  secularization,  seen  in 

tendencies   of    clergy  to   worldly  pleasures    and 

occupations, 
secular  developments  in  literature,  history,  poetry, 

philosophy,  etc. 
influence  in  temporal  affairs. 

1  This  separation  was  inevitable  from  the  first ;  differences  in  language, 
culture,  thought,  style,  had  long  been  preparing  the  way  for  differences  in 
faith  and  worship ;  and  when  at  last  this  difference  became  pronounced, 
and  the  "  Holy  Roman  Empire  "  an  established  fact,  no  bond  of  union  any 
longer  existed  between  the  parts  of  the  Empire,  and  they  broke  apart  as 
naturally  as  the  ripe  fruit  falls.  No  effort  on  the  part  of  pope  or  emperor 
or  patriarch  could  any  longer  sustain  even  the  name  of  union. 


90  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  Civilized  World,  814-1095. —  Continued. 

Tendency  to  revolt  against  the  chui-ch,  — 

in  government  (Investiture  quarrels), 
in  thought  (John  Scotus).^ 
Spirit  of  church,  — 
humane, 
democratic  (offices  open  to  all  classes ;  see  Hilde- 

brand). 
intolerant  of  heresy  (requiring  unity), 
reformatory,  2  — 

restoration  of  asceticism, 
celibacy  of  clergy  required. 

The  teacher  cannot  be  too  careful  to  have  his  pupils  thor- 
oughly understand  the  feudal  organization,  since  it  is  the  great 
secular  foundation  of  European  society  and  politics  from  the 
days  of  Charlemagne  onward,  and  onl3'  began  to  lose  its  hold  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Its  central  fact  was 
this,  the  union  of  political,  military,  and  legal  j^ower  with  the 
ownership  of  land;  the  land-owner  was  the  land-?orcZ.  In  theory, 
the  king  was  landlord  over  all.  In  need  of  men  and  money,  he 
delegated  his  lands,  and  with  them  his  powers  to  subordinate 
holders,  who  paid  again  by  the  use  of  land  for  service  of  body 
and  purse.  The  possession  of  land  was  the  measure  of  military 
and  financial  power ;  at  once,  then,  we  see  the  cause  of  the 
weakness  of  the  earl}'  mediaeval  king  as  against  a  combination 
of  two  or  three  strong  barons  ;  we  understand  how  the  emperor, 

1  Although  both  Anselm  and  Scotus  both  wished  to  found  theology  on 
sound  reason,  yet  when  the  two  were  in  conflict,  Anselm  taught  that  reason 
should  yield  to  authority,  while  the  bolder  spirit  of  Scotus  announced  that 
authority  itself  was  "derived  from  reason."  The  letter  from  the  poju? 
concerning  Erigena  (p.  313)  is  interesting,  as  showing  how  thoroughly  the 
former  felt  responsible  for  the  purity  of  the  faith,  and  therefore  claimed 
the  right  to  regulate  European  thought. 

2  Of  course  this  spirit  was  only  felt  by  the  strongest  and  best,  and  cul- 
minated in  Hildebrand,  whose  measures  were  the  logical  outcome  of  his 
desire  to  save  the  churcli  from  the  cares  and  burdens  and  pleasures  of  the 
world,  in  order  that  it  might  more  effectually  rule  and  help  the  world. 


EARLY   MEDIEVAL   PERIOD.  91 

gaining  his  title  as  a  successor  of  tlie  old  Roman  emperors, 
whose  power  was  supported  b}'  taxation,  found  himself  in  pos- 
session of  the  name  of  ruler  alone ;  for  the  feudal  theory 
expected  a  sovereign  "to  live  from  his  own,"  namely,  lead  his 
own  vassals  to  war,  and  gain  support  from  his  own  domains. 
The  emperor,  then,  as  emperor,  had  only  such  recognition  as  the 
temper  and  belief  of  the  period  might  accord.  From  this  point 
of  view,  we  understand  how  important  the  question  of  investi- 
ture was  to  Henry  lY.,  and  how  the  emperor  could  only  pre- 
serve imperial  power  in  those  countries  where  he  was  also  king, 
in  German}"  and  Italy,  while  France  was  practically  lost  to  the 
Empire  when  she  became  an  independent  kingdom. 

As  for  the  effects  of  feudalism  on  libert}',  equality,  peace, 
and  unity,  he  who  runs  may  read  ;  the  effect  on  manners  is 
more  questionable.  Guizot,  in  his  History  of  Civilization,  con- 
siders it  good  ;  l)ut  Ordericus  Vitalis  hardh"  encourages  such  an 
opinion  for  this  age  ;  during  this  period  it  is  not  safe,  perhaps, 
to  say  much  more  than  that  class  distinctions  produce  class 
manners,  and  that  in  a  society  of  superiors  and  inferiors,  for- 
malities will  necessarily  arise,  with  tendencies  to  condescension 
on  one  side  and  servility  on  the  other. 

I  have  not  called  special  attention  in  my  Students'  Edition  to 
the  resemblances  between  the  Teutonic  warrior  band  and  the 
feudal  unit ;  the  feudal  lord  is  the  chosen  chief,  his  superior  vas- 
sals are  his  bravest  companions,  who  still  are  bound  together  by 
a  common  loyalty  and  a  still  stronger  common  interest,  but  whom 
he  now  rewards,  not,  as  in  Caesar's  day,  with  spear  and  steed, 
but  with  permanent  titles  to  land.  In  the  feudal  courts,  again, 
we  see  the  mark-moot,  but  with  the  all-important  modification, 
that  the  war-leader  has  become  a  political  and  legal  ruler,  and 
thus  destroys  the  village  democracy  ;  while  in  the  feudal  code  of 
justice  we  find  each  man  still  his  own  defender  and  avenger. 
The  teacher,  however,  must  act  his  own  judgment  as  to  how  far 
he  should  discuss  the  origin  of  feudalism,  since  the  facts  on 
which  any  theory  can  be  built  are  fragmentary. 

The  extract  given  from  Byrhtnoth's  Death  (p.  310)  illustrates 


92  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

primitive  feudalism  perhaps  at  its  best.  Here  we  see  England 
invaded  by  a  Danish  warrior  band,  evidently  attracted  thither 
by  the  comparative  wealth  of  the  land,  now  long  settled  by  an 
agricultural  people.  Against  them  is  arrayed  the  feudal  unit,^ 
led  by  Byrthnoth,  who  adds  to  sure  confidence  in  the  Christian 
faith,  an  English  courage  and  determination  to  protect  and  keep 
his  own.  Nor  are  his  followers  unworthy  of  their  chief  ;  when 
he  is  slain,  they  fight  on  as  before,  undismayed,  while  the  very 
soul  of  bravery  speaks  in  Byrhtwold's  noble  words,  "Courage 
should  be  the  greater,  the  more  our  forces  lessen." 

Although  the  imperial  power  was  inferior  to  the  royal,  from 
the  feudal  point  of  view,  still  the  emperor  held  the  power  of  the 
Roman  name,  a  name  which  yet  stood  for  the  mightiest  empire 
men  had  known,  and  for  the  language,  law,  and  learning  of  the 
West ;  again,  he  held  the  power  of  the  Christian  name,  and  as 
"Protector  of  the  Catholic  Faith"  could  demand  the  service 
and  homage  of  all  Christian  men.  In  this  latter  regard,  how- 
ever, he  was  the  inferior  of  the  pope,  who  was  proved  to  be  the 
strongest  force  in  the  Empire  by  the  bitter  strife  of  Hildebrand 
and  Henry.  How  thoroughly  the  Empire  was  regarded  as  a  sort 
of  "church  militant"  is  shown  by  the  imperial  title,  which 
clearly  marks  the  imperial  office  as  that  of  a  general  of  the 
faith,  and  by  the  fact  that  new  peoples  could  only  enter  the 
Empire  by  acknowledging  themselves  the  subjects  of  the  church.^ 
While  the  church  claimed  a  peculiar  right  to  the  imperial  ser- 
vice, still  in  the  call  to  the  crusades  the  popes  claimed  a  right 
to  the  arms  of  all  Christendom  in  defense  of  the  Christian  faith, 
a  claim  which  was  not  denied  though  often  neglected.  In  fact, 
the  boundary  of  civilized  Europe  was  one  with  the  boundary  of 
Christian  Europe.     Throughout  Europe  the  church  was  still  the 

1  Note  the  traces  of  Teutonic  organization  in  this  unit ;  the  loyalty  to  a 
loved  chief ;  the  kinship  bond ;  the  duty  of  vengeance. 

2  Compare  the  case  of  Normans  in  France,  who  were,  like  the  Hungari- 
ans, allowed  to  settle  on  condition  of  accepting  Christianity.  The  weak- 
ness of  civilized  Europe  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  in  both  cases  the 
invaders  seize  and  hold  most  desirable  territory. 


EARLY  MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  93 

prime  civilizer ;  the  monasteries  were  still  the  centres  of  learn- 
ing and  authorship ;  Gerbert  gave  an  impulse  to  science  and 
mechanical  industry ;  the  archbishops  taught  and  advised  the 
monarchs ;  as  new  peoples  were  assimilated,  they  were  per- 
suaded to  the  habits  as  well  as  the  creed  of  Christianity;  thus 
in  Bulgaria  we  see  the  church  opposing  polygamy,  superstition, 
and  cruelty. 

Although  there  is  little  that  is  striking  in  the  intellectual  life 
of  this  age,  there  is  much  that  is  significant,  since  tendencies 
then  began  which  culminated  only  in  the  Renaissance ;  the 
Greek  influence  entered  the  West ;  the  courts  of  England  and 
France  became  intellectual  centres  ;  in  England,  France,  and 
Spain  national  subjects  or  national  languages  appeared  in  liter- 
ature, and  Italy  already  began  to  gain  artistic  and  scientific 
leadership.  Europe,  however,  was  still  too  harassed  by  inva- 
sion, too  confused  by  feudalism,  to  permit  of  great  results  in 
scholarship  or  thought ;  her  greatest  names  were  still  of  warlike 
kings  and  chiefs,  among  whom  the  Normans  appeared  pre- 
eminent. 

Attention  should  be  called  to  the  fact  that  the  Moorish  civili- 
zation, which  culminated  in  this  age,  was  developed  along  lines 
marked  out  from  the  first.  The  Arabs  were  the  latest  heirs  of 
the  wisdom  of  the  East  as  modified  by  the  Alexandrian  influ- 
ences ;  they  were  the  mediaeval  authorities  in  astronomy, 
medicine,  mathematics,  and  the  Aristotelian  philosophy ;  but 
their  own  authorities  were  confessedly  Ptolemy,  Galen,  Hippo- 
crates, Euclid,  and  Aristotle. 

It  is  of  the  greatest  interest  to  note  how,  in  St.  Mark's  and 
the  Ducal  Palace  all  influences  built  themselves  in  marble  ; 
Greek  and  Oriental  columns,  Roman  and  Gothic  arches,  Orien- 
tal domes,  Moorish  ornament  and  color,  all  combined  into  a 
new  beauty,  neither  Gothic,  classic,  nor  Oriental,  but  Venetian, 
a  beauty  rich  in  detail  and  daring  in  cosmopolitan  combination. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  political 
power  of  a  belief  or  myth,  as  illustrated  by  the  "  Holy  Roman  Em- 
pire."    The  "  Marches  "  of  the  Empire.     Of  what  use  was  the  short- 


94  STUDIES   IN   GENERAI^   HISTORY. 

lived  empire  of  Charlemagne?  The  influence  of  foreign  invasion  or 
attack  upon  internal  unity,  as  illustrated  in  the  English  and  German 
history  of  this  age.  How  a  baron  spent  the  day,  900  a.d.  Same  of  a 
serf;  a  bishop;  a  king.  What  were  the  elements  of  Otto's  power? 
What  progress  has  been  made  by  the  barbarians  during  this  age? 
The  losses  of  Constantinople.  Alfred  the  Great  and  Charlemagne. 
The  Norman  war-chiefs.  A  group  at  Charlemagne's  court.  What 
characters  of  the  period  had  lives  that  deserve  the  terra  "romantic"? 
Life  in  Normandy,  1000  a.d.  The  nobility  of  the  age.  Journal  of 
Greek  sent  on  an  embassy  to  Bagdad.     Gerbert  in  Spain. 


B.   STUDY   ON   ORUSADING  PERIOD. 

This  study  should  be  opened  by  a  class  conversation  along 
the  lines  indicated  by  the  questions  on  p.  318.  The  word 
*'  divisions,"  in  the  first  of  these  questions,  refers  to  the  feudal 
divisions  indicated  on  the  map,  and  named  in  the  key,  in  the 
upper  left-hand  corner ;  the  most  casual  glance  at  them  will 
show  how  feudalism  had  cut  Western  Europe  into  many 
petty  little  states,  without  specially  natural  boundaries  ;  nor 
will  the  teacher,  perhaps,  find  a  more  suitable  time  than  this  in 
which  to  call  attention  to  the  natural  boundaries  of  the  various 
European  states,  and  to  the  fact  that  countries  like  England, 
Spain,  Italy,  and  France,  become  more  quickly  consolidated 
and  defined  than  countries  like  Germany,  which  has  no  well- 
defined  natural  barrier  eastward,  and  so  must  depend  the  more 
on  fortresses  and  arms. 

If  the  teacher  find  himself  behindhand  with  his  work,  but  has 
been  thorough  with  the  precediug  period,  he  may  pass  over  this 
study  very  sketchily  and  hastily,  since  much  of  the  work  consists 
in  the  application  to  new  circumstances  of  tendencies  and  organ- 
izations with  which  the  student  is  already  familiar.  But  enough 
attention  must  be  given  so  that  the  relation  of  the  crusades  to 
the  earlier  and  later  mediaival  period  ma}-  not  be  missed.  As 
the  Persian  wars  were  to  Greece,  and  the  Punic  wars  to  Rome, 


STUDY   ON   CRUSADING   PERIOD.  95 

SO  were  the  crusades  to  mediaeval  Europe,  —  an  enlarging,  enliv- 
ening movement,  which  brought  young  peoples  into  contact  with 
ancient  civilizations. 

Throughout  his  study  the  student  should  be  encouraged  to 
summarize  his  own  results  as  far  as  possible.  But  this  sort  of 
work  is  rather  difficult,  and,  with  most  classes,  the  teacher  will 
find  it  well  to  watch  his  opportunity  to  give  practice  on  easily 
classified  material,  such  as  the  crusades  furnish.  He  may  ask 
his  pupils  to  tabulate  their  work  on  the  crusades,  under  the 
following  heads :  Comparison  of  Antagonists,  Causes  and 
Motives,  Leaders  and  Instigators,  Routes,  Leading  Events, 
Results,  Uses  and  Effects.  The  results  reached  by  the  study 
on  the  whole  period,  however,  will  need  a  longer  and  more 
complex  summary  ;  the  following  may  serve  as  a  guide  :  — 

CRUSADING   PERIOD. 

New  Organizations  and  States  formed. 

"Orders  of  knighthood. ^ 
Latin  ^  kingdoms  of  East,  — 

Jerusalem. 

Edessa. 
Latin  ^  Empire  of  Constantinople. 
Lombard  League  (of  Italian  cities)  .^ 

Relative  Conditions  of  Various  European  Powers. 

Papal  and  ecclesiastical  power  strengthening,  seen  in 
leadership  and  direction  of  crusades.* 
delegation  of  temporal  power  to  ecclesiastics  by  crusa- 
ders. 

1  Those  points  marked  "  a  "  are  expected  to  be  obtained  from  the  mate- 
rial, pp.  325-329. 

2  The  use  of  this  adjective  "Latin"  in  connection  with  these  new  Eastern 
states  is  an  incidental  proof  of  the  way  in  which  the  men  of  the  West 
were  still  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  Latin  half  of  the  Roman  Empire, 

^  Notable  as  the  first  important  example  of  these  city-leagues,  so  influ- 
ential in  the  later  mediaeval  history  of  the  Empire. 

*  This  leadership  gave  the  pope,  for  the  time  being,  command  of  new 
material  forces  of  men  and  money. 


96  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Crusading  Period. —  Continued. 

•'  Concordat  of  Worms,"  and  other  papal  victories  in 

Germany, 
interference  in  temporal  affairs,  as  in 
conquest  of  Ireland. 

quarrel  of  John  of  England  with  his  barons, 
"continued  monopoly  of  art  and  literature. 
Imperial  power  weakening,  seen  in 
"  Concordat  of  Worms." 
new  and  successful  opposition  of  cities, — 
Italy. 
Germany, 
battle  of  Bouvines. 
Royal  power  strengthening  in  France, ^  through 

union  of  king  and  people  against  barons  (note  Bouvines). 
acquisition  of  new  land  by  king.^ 
Development  of  municipal  power,  seen  in 

successful  strife  of  cities  with  emperor, 
burgher  victory  of  Bouvines. 

Characteristics  of  Age. 

French  leadership  in  crusades.^ 

Uneasiness  under  papal  and  ecclesiastical  rule,  seen  in 

strife  of  Guelph  and  Ghibelin. 

attempt  of  Arnold  of  Brescia. 

^  The  royal  power  was  also  growing  stronger  in  England,  but  not  so 
evidently,  since  what  had  been  gained  against  the  pope  and  barons  by 
preceding  kings,  was  temporarily  lost  by  John. 

2  Normandy  would,  in  any  case,  have  finally  come  to  France,  to  w^hich 
it  naturally  belonged,  both  by  geographical  position,  and  by  unity  of 
speech  and  general  civilization. 

^  The  French  became  the  natural  leaders  of  the  crusades,  because 
there  was  no  serious  disaffection  in  France  against  the  pope,  such  as  had 
been  developed  in  Germany  by  the  investiture  quarrels ;  moreover,  the 
French  were  the  oldest  and  most  securely  Christianized  people  of  the 
West,  not  even  excepting  Italy,  since  the  Normans  in  the  South,  and  the 
Lombards  in  the  North,  were  later  acquisitions  to  the  faith  than  the  war- 
riors of  Clovis.  The  fact  of  their  predominance  in  the  crusades  finds  an 
interesting  confirmation  in  the  Eastern  use  of  the  name  "  Frank  "  for  all 
Europeans. 


STUDY  ON  CRUSADING  PERIOD.  97 

investiture  quarrels  in 
Germany. 
France. 
England, 
heresies  of  Southern  France,  — 
Albigenses;  Waldenses. 
affair  of  Thomas  Beket. 
Gradual  loss  of  crusading  energy, 
seen  in 

indifferent  or  irrelevant  results  of  later  crusades, 
greater  inducements  offered  to  later  crusaders  (see 

p.  332). 
doubt  felt  at  Antioch. 
caused  by 

ill  success  in  East. 

growing  acquaintance  with  dangers  and  difficul- 
ties of  undertaking, 
loss  of  horror  for  the  Infidel. 
Constant   contact   of    Greek,    Oriental    (^Moorish),  and   Latin 

civilizations. 
"Growth  of  intellectual  energy, 
"centering  at 

Paris  (Abelard). 
Cordova  (Averroes). 
Bologna, 
monasteries, 
"seen  in 

widening  circle  of  intellectual  interest,— 
theology, 
law. 

medicine, 
philosophy, 
history, 
growth  of  French  as  a  literary  language. 

Tendencies  of  Crusading. 

To  weaken  feudalism  through 

unredeemed  mortgages  on  feudal  land, 

destruction  of  knights  in  crusades,  .*. 

relative  weakness  of  noble  class  in  numbers,  tending 


98  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Crusading  Period.  —  Continued. 
To  strengthen 

kings. 

cities. 

church  (increasing  its  property  by  mortgaged  or  deeded 
lands  of  crusaders). 
To  create  new  routes  and  demands  for  trade. 
To  increase  knowledge,  — 

geographical. 

commercial  and  industrial. 

historical. 
To  introduce  Oriental  products  and  luxuries  to  the  West. 
To  increase  respect  for  and  value  of  industrial  pursuits  and 

artisan  class. 

If  the  teacher  choose,  he  may  add  still  another  heading, 
Effects  of  Crusading  ;  ,this,  however,  can  only  be  filled  out 
after  the  student  has  done  the  work  on  the  later  mediaeval 
period.      (See  p.  Ill  of  this  manual.) 

On  comparing  the  West  and  the  East  at  the  opening  of  the 
crusades,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  West  was  comparatively  still 
uncivilized ;  in  the  military  art,  the  siege  of  Antioch  had  much 
to  teach  the  crusaders,  who  were  as  yet  unaccustomed  to  invest 
walled  cities ;  in  comparing  the  various  captures  of  Jerusalem 
by  Omar,  by  the  first  crusaders,  and  by  Saladin,  the  Moslems 
are  seen  to  be  the  more  humane ;  ^  while  the  impressions  of  the 
astonished  crusaders  show  how  unaccustomed  they  were  to  the 
aspect  of  cultivated  lands,  and  of  cities  strongl^'-built  and 
adorned  with  the  beauties  of  art. 

From  this  astonishment  the  Venetians  were  exempt,  accus- 
tomed as  they  were  to  trade  eastward ;  to  them,  the  crusades 
gave  a  chance  for  a  great  speculation,  from  which  they  gained 

1  Some  excuse  may  be  found  for  the  crusaders  in  the  general  hostility 
of  all  Christians  against  the  Jews,  as  being  the  people  at  whose  hands 
Christ  suffered  death.  It  was  evidently  the  belief  of  many  of  the  first 
crusaders  that  it  was  a  part  of  their  duty  to  massacre  tliese  unfortunate 
people,  wherever  found. 


STUDY   ON   CRUSADING   PERIOD.  99 

not  only  new  wealth  and  territory,  but  also  a  chance  to  plunder 
from  Constantinople  some  of  those  "  monuments"  whose  value 
they  understood  somewhat  better  than  did  their  rude  compan- 
ions. It  is  significant  of  their  long  trading  habits  that  they  fur- 
nished neither  men,  money,  nor  ships,  "  for  the  love  of  God," 
without  due  recompense  in  pay  or  booty ;  and  their  bargaiji 
with  the  crusaders  would  show  how  considerable  and  wealthy  a 
power  Venice  had  already  become,  even  if  the  rich  beauty  of 
St.  Mark's  and  the  Ducal  Palace  did  not  furnish  material  evi- 
dence of  the  fact. 

The  whole  story  of  Thomas  Beket,  to  its  every  detail,  is 
very  significant  of  the  age;  the  main  facts,  given  on  p.  323, 
show  at  once  the  legal  and  political  influence  of  churchmen, 
and  the  tendency  of  the  age  to  revolt  against  this  temporal 
power  where  it  clashed  with  national  government  and  unity  ; 
while  in  Beket's  saintship  and  Henry's  penance  we  see  the 
still  predominating  hold  of  the  spiritual  power  of  Rome.  But,* 
strong  as  the  church  was  growing,  developing  along  the  lines 
marked  out  b}'  Gregory,  it  is  significant  that  the  revolts  against 
her  grew  more  frequent  and  daring,  although,  as  yet,  their 
most  serious  effort  was  to  check  her  assertion  of  legal  and 
political  power.  Intellectual  revolt  was  still  rare,  and  when  it 
appeared,  as  in  Southern  France,  was  speedily  suppressed  in  the 
interests  of  that  unit}"  of  belief  so  essential  to  the  papal  power. 

The  appeals  of  Pope  Urban,  and  still  more  the  Papal  Bull 
issued  for  the  second  crusade,  are  convincing  proof  that  the 
crusading  energy  was  due  in  part  to  other  motives  than  those 
derived  from  desires  to  avenge  the  enslaved,  persecuted,  or 
murdered  pilgrims,  save  Jerusalem  from  the  infidel,  and  make 
of  Palestine  a  Christian  kingdom.  That  these  motives  were 
strong  is  seen  in  the  enthusiasm  with  which  Urban's  appeal  to 
them  was  met ;  but  they  were  strengthened  by  the  love  of 
adventure,  the  passion  of  warfare,  the  hope  of  salvation,  the 
desire  for  plunder,  the  charm  of  license,  and  in  many  cases, 
perhaps,  by  the  power  which  was  given  to  escape  from  the  bur- 
dens of  debt  and  the  legal  consequences  of  crime.     On  Saladin's 


100  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

side,  also,  the  motives  were  undoubtedly  mixed ;  but  that  they 
had  a  strong  element  of  religious  fervor,  is  clearly  to  be  felt 
from  Saladiu's  letter  (p.  334). 

The  power  of  faith,  even  when  it  appears  in  the  form  of 
superstition,  receives  a  striking  illustration  from  the  story  of 
the  "  Sacred  Lance,"  which,  for  the  time  being,  served  as  well 
as  if  it  had  had  genuine  supernatural  virtue,  inasmuch  as  it  gave 
absolute  confidence,  and  all  the  strength  which  such  a  confi- 
dence inspires,  to  the  weary  and  doubting  crusaders. 

The  whole  period  is  marked  by  no  great  distinguishing  ten- 
dency or  characteristic  ;  it  is  a  time  of  action  in  which  old  forms 
and  ideas  are  tried,  while  new  ones  are  suggested,  —  an  age  at 
once  of  culmination  and  of  obscure,  but  originating  change. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  geo- 
graphical advantages  of  England.  The  geographical  disadvantages 
of  Poland.  Reflections  of  a  Bulgarian  upon  the  crusaders.  Journal 
*of  a  follower  of  Godfrey  of  Boulogne.  The  Christianity  of  Saladin. 
A  French  crusader's  account  of  the  taking  of  Antioch.  Richard  the 
Lion-heart,  considered  as  an  English  king.  When  was  the  whole 
Roman  Empire  under  "  barbarian  "  rule  ?  How  would  a  crusader 
have  justified  the  massacre  of  the  Jews?  What  would  be  the  natural 
relation  of  Moslems  and  Jews?  What  facts  given  in  lists,  pp.  325- 
329,  prove  this  relation  to  have  existed?  Proofs  that  the  civilization 
of  the  West  was  still  Roman. 


LATER   MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.     ,  , -JOl 


C.   LATER  MEDI51VAL  PERIOD,  1215-1492. 

The  following  summary  embodies  the  general  results  to  be 
obtained  from  the  studies  on  this  period :  — 

LATER  MEDIAEVAL  PERIOD. 

Organizations  of  Period. 

Feudal  kingdoms  growing  into  centralized  national  units  by 

increase  of  royal  power  (consolidation  and  enlargement 

of  royal  domains), 
summoning  to  one  place  and  for  one  purpose  the  assem- 
blies of  estates, — 
nobles, 
clergy, 
commons,  — 

merchants  (in  England  and  on  the  continent), 
landed  proprietors  outside  the  noble  class  (in 
England), 
formation  of  national  codes,  — 
St.  Lewis. 
Edward  I. 
Alfonso  of  Castile, 
foreign  wars :   ex.   Spanish   wars   with   Moors,  wars  of 
English  and  French. 
The  Empire  ^  (Italy  and  Germany)  greatly  weakened  and  disin- 
tegrated by 

grants  to  nobles  and  clergy, 
strife  of  Guelph  and  Ghibelin. 
"great  interregnum." 
loss  of  Poland, 
loss  of  Sicily. 

formation  of  Swiss  league, 
formation  of  city  leagues  against  nobles,  — 
Hanse. 
Rhine. 

1  The  imperial  name  at  this  time  furnishes  an  excellent  illustration  of 
a  "  dignity"  since  it  still  held  the  respect  of  men  by  its  antiquity,  associa- 
tions, and  traditions,  while  all  its  real  power  was  rapidly  vanishing. 


10^  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Later  Medieval  Period.  —  Continued. 

wars  and  disturbances  throughout  Germany, 
wars  and  leagues  of  Italian  cities. 
The  church,  thoroughly  centralized  hierarchy,  culminating  in 
papal  office,  — 

powerful  through 

unity,  obtained  by 

persecution  of  heresy  (Inquisition), 
censorship  of  literature, 
independence  of  secular  courts  and  impe- 
rial election. 1 
wealth  (note  cathedrals), 
command  of  military  orders, 
command  of  learning, 
judicial  power. 

presence  in  assemblies  of  estates  (political  power), 
privilege  and  rank  (the  untaxed  second  estate). 
electoral  nature  of  papacy. ^ 
threatened  by 

"  Schism  of  the  West." 
growing  tendency  to  heresy. 

growing  dissatisfaction,  most  pronounced  in  Ger- 
many and  England,  with  ecclesiastical  govern- 
ment, doctrine,  and  morality,  seen  in 
attitude  of  kings. 
German  electors, 
popular  literature. 
Lollard  and  Hussite  movement, 
heresies. 
The  guilds,  democratic,  local,  co-operative  societies  of  the  third 
estate  (merchants  and  artisans),  — 
formed  for 

mutual  protection  and  aid. 
advancement  of  trade,  .*. 
favorable  to 

morality,   peace,   public  health   and  cleanliness, 
high  standard  of  workmanship,  and 

1  Since  the  papal  election  was  transferred  to  the  College  of  Cardinals. 

2  The  papal  office  was  thus  freed  from  the  chances  of  birth  and  the 
family  quarrels  to  which  an  ordinary  monarchy  is  subject. 


LATER   MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  103 

opposed  to 

monopolies. 

inequality  of  advantage  or  opportunity, 
united  by  bonds  of 

mutual  interest, 
kinship  (often).i 
The  towns,  democratic,^  local  governments, 
power  based  on  wealth. 
bonds  of  union, 

common  local  interests, 
common  residence, 
opposed  to 

irregular,  arbitrary,  and   outside  interference  in 
local  affairs, 
favoring 

local  independence, 
trade. 
Orders  of  knighthood. 
Their  duties,  — 

to  defend  the  church  -y 

to  defend  the  king  >•  military, 

to  defend  the  weak  and  defenceless  ) 
to  hold  to  the  Christian  faith 
to  be  loyal  to  their  king 
to  do  justice  • 

to  be  honorable,  courteous,  brave, 
humble,  truthful,  persevering 
Characteristics  of  Period  Special  to  England. 

Prosperity  of  farming  gentry  (stock-farmers,  raising  sheep), 
seen  in 

presence  in  third  estate, 
tax  on  wool. 
Successful  establishment  of  constitution  (compare  with  result 
of  constitutional  struggle  in  France),  embodied  in 

1  The  guild  privileges  were  freely  open  to  the  sons  and  daughters  of 
guildsmen ;  the  trades  thus  became  largely  hereditary. 

2  Within  the  hodtj  of  citizens,  democracy  was  the  ruling  principle ;  but 
this  body  could  not  be  said  to  include  men  of  what  has  been  called  the 
fourth  estate. 


spiritual 

and 

social. 


104  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Later  MEDiiEVAL  Period.  —  Continued. 
Great  Charter,  demanding  ^ 

"  No  taxation  without  representation." 
jury  trial  (judgment  by  peers). 
*'  Habeas  corpus  "  (no  delay  in  justice). 
Characteristics  Special  to  France. 

Strife  of  king  and  towns  and  nobles,  ending  in 

victory  of  king  over  nobles,  and  accompanied  by 
steady  enlargement  of  royal  domain.^ 
substitution  of  king's  law  for 

trial  by  battle  and  arbitrary  judgments. 
Close  relations  with  papacy,  seen  in 
papal  offer  of  Sicily  to  Anjou. 
removal  of  papal  seat  to  Avignon. 
Characteristics  Special  to  Spain. 

Superior  strength  of  royalty  (large  domain). 
Characteristics  General  through  "Western  Europa 

Growing  prosperity  of  middle  trading-classes,  seen  in 
formation  and  powers  of  third  estate, 
formation  and  powers  of  guilds, 
buildings  and  defenses  of  towns ; 
political  and  military  power  of  towns,  evinced  in 
Flemish  and  Parisian  revolts, 
wars  of  Italian  towns, 
formation  of  powerful  leagues. 
taxes  imposed  on  third  estate  (wool-tax  in  England), 
growing  prominence  of  manufacturing  industries. 
Growth  of  nationalities,  displaying  itself  in  differentiation  of 
language,  history,^  intellectual  interest,  and  in  codifica- 
tion of  national  law. 

1  These  demands  indicate  the  directions  in  which  Englishmen  had  felt 
oppression. 

2  This  enlargement,  of  course,  under  the  "Old  Regime,"  meant  the 
enlargement  of  the  king'*  resources.  Here  we  see  the  special  reason  why 
the  desire  for  territorial  possession  should  be  the  moving  cause  of  the 
long  wars  of  the  French  and  English  kings. 

*  It  will  be  noted  that,  from  the  time  of  the  crusades  on,  the  history  of 
Europe  cannot  be  treated  in  the  mass,  since  each  country  begins  its  own 
proper  development. 


LATER   MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  105 

Strife  of  the  nearly  balanced  powers  of  towns,  kings,  nobles, 
popes,  resulting  in 

multiplicity  of  def enses,^  — 
castles, 
town  walls. 
victories  of  towns  and  princes  in 

Germany  and  Italy. 
royal  victory  in  France, 
general  instability  and  insecurity. 

Growth  of  popular  ^  liberty  (as  a  purpose  or  a  fact), 
seen  in 

growth  of  electoral  principle  in 
towns, 
guilds. 

College  of  Cardinals, 
electors  of  Empire, 
attempts  at  political  independence  or  liberty,  — 
Cola  di  Rienzi. 
Marcel, 
demands  of  estates 

in  England,  France,  and  Spain, 
increase  of  local  freedom  (towns), 
participation  of  all  classes  in  literary  and  artistic 
movements, 
favored  by 

needs  of  kings  for  money  from  the  third  estate, 
growing  intelligence  of  people. 

Social  uneasiness  and  agitation  among  those  of  the  lowest  class 
(fourth  estate), 
seen  in 

Jacquerie. 

Wat  Tyler's  revolt. 

Hussite  War. 


1  Compare  with  the  standing  armies  of  the  nearly  balanced  powers  of 
Europe  to-day. 

2  It  must,  however,  be  remembered  that  the  word  "popular"  does  not 
apply  to  men  below  the  station  of  the  third  estate. 


106  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Later  MEDiiEVAL  Period.  —  Continued. 

Intellectual  and  artistic  activity  among  all  classes.^ 
seen  in 

t  poetry  \ 

literature  -3  history  >- ,  Italy  and  England  leading. 

(  travels  ) 
theology  and  philosophy,  France  leading, 
science,  Italy  leading,  — 
confused, 
undifferentiated, 
aiming  at 

prolonging  life  and  renewing  youth, 
changing  other  metals  to  gold, 
foretelling  the  future. 
laying  foundations  for 

chemistry     J  (^j^hemy). 
mineralogy  > 
astronomy  (astrology), 
painting  and  sculpture  (led  by  Italy  and  Ger- 
many), — 

original  ^  in  subject  (Biblical), 
architecture  (led  by  France  and  Germany), — 
original 

in  structure  (pointed  arch,  Gothic), 
in  decoration  (stained  glass), 
influenced  by 

Greek,  Roman,  and  Moorish  forms, 
learning  (universities),  Italy  and  France  leading, 
heresies, 
inventions, 
patrohized  by 
church, 
princes,  and 
wealthy  merchants. 

1  Here,  as  in  political  life,  "  all  classes  "  refers  to  the  three  estates,  the 
lowest  class  not  yet  appearing  as  an  intellectual  or  social  element  in  the 
state. 

3  Following  out  the  lines  indicated  by  the  early  church. 


LATER   MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  107 

influenced  by 

Moors,  in  science,  philosophy,  and  art. 

Greeks,  in  science,  philosophy,  and  art. 

Romans,  in  law  and  literature. 
rendered  influential  and  general  by 

printing  and  engraving. 

comforts  and  contrivances  for  giving  men  leisure, 
comfort,  and  quiet, 
characterized  by 

European  interchange  of  thought  and  knowledge. 

versatility  and  variety. 
Organization,  —  of  tendencies,  occupations,  classes ;  of 
chivalry  in  knighthood, 
faith  in  new  monastic  orders, 
learning  in  universities, 
trades  in  guilds, 
classes  and  occupations  in  estates,  — 

nobles. 

clergy. 

third  estate. 
Centralization,  —  of    feudalism    in    kings,   of    the    church    in 

papacy,  of  third  estate  in  town  organizations. 
Growth  of  new  ideals,  — 
the  knight, 
the  "  Doctor." 
the  wealthy  merchant, 
the  author  and  artist. 

It  should  be  thoroughly  understood  that  the  assemblies  of 
estates  were  quite  different  from  our  modern  legislative  bodies. 
The  interests  they  represented  were  those  of  classes,  not  of  the 
whole  people  ;  they  were  called  together  at  the  will  of  the  mon- 
arch, and  primarily  in  his  interest,  either  because  he  wished 
their  advice,  their  moral  support,  or  their  money.  Naturally, 
then,  they  were  composed  of  the  rich,  influential,  and  intelli- 
gent classes,  and  included  the  third  estate,  not  as  a  matter  of 
justice,  but  because  this  estate  contained  the  wealthy  merchants, 
and  could  bring  to  the  royal  service  a  heavy  purse.  Originat- 
ing thus  in  the  needs  of  the  monarchs,  the  estates,  especially  the 


108  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

commons,  found  a  means  of  enforcing  attention  to  their  claims, 
and  of  winning  new  privilege  and  political  importance.  In 
other  words,  the  king  often  found  himself  obliged  to  buy  their 
aid ;  thus,  in  England,  he  paid  for  it  by  charters,  favors,  and 
promises,  tending  to  give  wider  liberties  and  juster  govern- 
ment ;  in  France,  the  history  was  the  same,  but  there  the  king's 
strength  finally  proved  superior  to  that  of  the  estates  ;  and 
thus,  while  in  England,  Magna  Charta  laid  the  foundation  of 
constitutional  government,  in  France  the  equally  wise  demands 
of  Marcel  and  the  Parisians  ended  in  the  triumph  of  royalty. 

To  the  modern  student,  the  subject  of  guilds  is  of  especial 
interest,  since  it  was  the  mediaeval  solution  of  the  ' '  labor  prob- 
lem," and  a  solution  not  merely  successful,  but  brilliant.  Their 
study  is  at  once  so  easy  and  so  suggestive,  that  the  teacher  will 
find  in  it  an  admirable  place  for  much  conversational  work,  such 
as  would  grow  out  of  the  question  as  to  the  value  to  the  guilds- 
men  of  morality,  peace,  public  health,  and  cleanliness.  In 
talking  this  over,  the  teacher  should  be  careful  to  keep  in  mind 
the  tradesman's  point  of  view ;  for  each  of  these  conditions 
had  its  own  special  value  to  the  trader  and  artisan,  as  ensuring 
him  quiet  and  favorable  conditions  for  work,  while  at  tlie  same 
time  they  rendered  his  place  of  labor  or  residence  secure  and 
attractive  to  the  buyer.  For  the  same  reasons  we  find  that,  in 
the  assemblies  of  estates,  the  third  estate  always  inclined  to 
vote  for  peace  rather  than  war. 

The  most  vital  point  of  the  guild  organizations  was  this : 
they  ivere  built  upon  the  x>rinciple  of  co-operative  instead  of 
upon  that  of  competitive  industry.  All  the  men  of  the  same 
calling  within  the  same  town- walls,  worked  together  for  a 
common  good,  inspired  by  common  interests,  and  by  a  common 
pride  in  the  honor  and  excellence  of  the  guild.  Thus,  in  their 
relation  to  the  outer  world,  the}'  may  be  described  as  monopo- 
lists of  labor,  since  no  man  could  successfull}'  follow  any  busi- 
ness outside  the  ranks  of  a  guild  ;  within  those  ranks,  however, 
monopoly,  and  even  a  disproportionate  command  of  men  and 
other  means  of  labor,  were  strictly  prevented. 


LATER   MEDIEVAL   PERIOD.  109 

The  power  of  the  guilds  evidently  underlay  that  of  the  towns, 
those  great  mediaeval  fortresses  of  labor,  whose  increasing  re- 
sources caused  the  comparative  decline  of  the  noble  class,  and 
acted  as  a  check  on  needy  kings,  who  were  glad  to  buy  the 
right  of  taxation  with  charters  of  liberty.  These  charters 
plainly  show  that  the  towns  had  suffered  much  from  the  arbi- 
trary judgments  and  irregular  interference  of  kings  and  nobles, 
and  that  liberty  meant  to  them  the  power  to  judge  and  manage 
in  regard  to  their  own  local  affairs.  Hence  we  see  why  the 
towns  always  favored  the  power  of  kings  rather  than  that  of 
nobles,  since  the  former  at  least  represented  a  central,  stan- 
dard authority. 

The  success  of  the  trading-class,  and  the  quickening  of  popu- 
lar thought,  could  hardly  fail  to  rouse  the  consciousness  of  the 
great  "  fourth  estate,"  composed  of  untrained  laborers.  This 
class,  both  in  England  and  in  France,  now  first  urged  its  w^ay 
into  notice  by  bloody,  unintelligent,  and  ineffective  revolt. 
There  is  an  indication  that  this  class  was  more  intelligent  in 
England  than  in  France,  in  the  fact  that  Wat  Tyler  and  his 
followers  appealed  to  the  king  as  the  fountain  of  justice,  while 
the  ' '  Jacquerie  "  was  a  blind  protest  made  in  fire  and  murder  ; 
this,  of  course,  is  but  conjecture,  and  I  have  called  attention 
to  the  point  chiefly  for  the  sake  of  making  the  student  realize 
the  difference  between  an  indication  and  a  proof.  But  while 
revolt  accomplished  nothing  for  the  poorest  class  of  all,  the 
''Black  Death"  did  much  to  free  man  from  the  soil,  and 
change  the  serf  into  a  wage  laborer.^  At  a  moderate  calcula- 
tion, a  third  of  the  people  perished  by  this  plague  ;  in  conse^ 
quence,  labor  was  so  scarce,  that  the  surviving  laborers  were 
able  to  enforce  their  demands  for  money  payments,  or  for 
higher   wages.      This    movement    is,    however,    important    to 

1  The  slave  could  be  bought  and  sold  at  the  will  of  his  masters ;  the 
serf  could  only  be  bought  or  sold  with  the  land  which  he  cultivated,  and 
the  home  where  he  lived ;  the  wage  laborer  is  bound  neither  to  a  man  nor 
a  field,  but  sells  his  labor  as  freely  as  the  circumstances  of  the  market 
permit. 


110  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

notice,  as  a  beginning  of  the  long  agitations  of  the  laboring 
classes,  rather  than  as  a  strong  mark  of  this  period. 

Woven  tlu'oughout  the  texture  of  European  society,  the  eccle- 
siastical power  saw  itself  threatened  with  dismemberment,  as 
distinct  nationalities  began  to  gather  about  new  centres,  and 
Rome  began  to  be  forgotten  as  the  common  mother.  The  unit}-  of 
the  church,  and  its  traditional  relations  to  the  temporal  powers, 
was  diametrically  opposed  to  the  formation  of  independent 
kingdoms  within  the  bod}'  of  Christendom ;  this,  as  well  as  the 
legal  power  of  the  church,  and  the  ecclesiastical  control  of 
large  amounts  of  land,  tlu-eatened  the  peace  and  unit}'  of 
states.  Thus  the  inevitable  conflict  of  the  temporal  with  the 
spiritual  power  approached,  and  most  rapidly  in  Germany, 
where  the  conflicting  claims  of  pope  and  emperor  had  already 
caused  centuries  of  conflict  and  confusion. 

The  whole  period  is  marked  by  the  strife  of  nearly  balanced 
powers ;  but  classes,  rather  than  nations,  were  the  opposing 
forces ;  the  noble  checked  the  king,  and  the  town  checked  both, 
while  obscure  but  significant  movements  were  felt  in  still  lower 
strata. 

If  "number  is  quality,"  then  these  centuries  should  rank 
high  in  human  history  for  their  great  number  of  famous  men. 
Not  only  is  the  list  a  long,  but  a  varied  one,  and  in  this  regard 
it  contrasts  curiously  with  the  lists  of  the  Christian  Empire 
and  the  early  mediaeval  period,  which  belong  to  a  one-sided 
development  correspondingly  intense.  Men  were  now  trained 
for  achievement  not  only  in  the  cloister,  but  in  the  camp,  the 
court,  the  workshop,  and  the  studio ;  and  it  is  interesting  to 
note  that,  perhaps  without  exception,  the  training  had  a  direct 
relation  to  the  man's  life-work. 

Even  before  the  invention  of  printing,  the  increasing  wealth 
and  culture  of  laymen  is  evidenced  by  the  production  of  a 
great  secular  literature  in  the  various  national  tongues  of 
Europe ;  the  subjects  of  this  literature  reflect  the  learning,  the 
thought,  the  feeling  of  the  age  ;  and  such  a  list  as  that  of 
Caxton*8  first  editions  is  an  admirable  index  to  the  intellectual 


LATER    MEDI-^VAL   PERIOD.  Ill 

life  of  the  time,  since  it  gives  a  practical  gauge  of  literary 
popularity. 

This  period  is  so  alive  and  complete,  so  full  of  old  powers 
waning  and  new  ones  waxing,  that  it  is  perhaps  impossible  to 
say,  with  any  certain t}-,  just  what  part  of  its  new  life  Europe 
owed  to  the  crusades  ;  it  is  easy  to  reason  out  relations  be- 
tween these  movements  and  the  new  impulses  in  science,  art, 
and  trade ;  but  such  reasoning  must  always  be  tempered  by 
the  memory  of  the  Moors  in  Spain,  and  of  the  close  relations 
of  the  East  with  Venice  and  the  other  great  Italian  marts. 

In  the  study  on  p.  378,  I  have  tried  to  show  in  some  detail 
how  pictures  may  be  used  in  the  study  of  histor}-. 

In  a,  6,  c,  d,  we  see  an  architecture  quite  different  from  that 
of  Greece,  or  Rome,  or  the  East ;  the  spire,  the  pointed  arch, 
the  tower,  have  succeeded  the  pillar,  the  rounded  arch,  and  the 
dome ;  the  basis  of  decoration  is  found  in  the  openings  of  the 
walls,  in  the  windows  and  doors  ;  stained  glass  has  become  an 
important  material  in  decorative  art,  while  its  subjects  are  drawn 
from  Christian  scripture  and  tradition ;  in  the  portal  (c)  the 
forms  emploj'ed  are  again  the  forms  of  human  beings,  as  in  the 
Greek  temple,  but  the  forms  are  now  of  saints,  and  not  of 
athletes.  And  yet  throughout  we  see  the  influence  of  the 
earlier  civilizations  ;  the  Greek  pillar,  the  Roman  arch,  the 
Moorish  ornament,  are  all  present,  but  modified  and  subordi- 
nated by  a  new  spirit,  expressing  itself  in  an  architecture 
essentially  new.  The  most  Gothic  of  these  four  pictures,  the 
most  purely  original  to  this  period,  is,  perhaps,  c ;  and  yet  even 
there  the  presence  of  some  little  Greek  pillars,  used  as  part  of 
the  decoration,  betraj's  the  ineffaceable  influence.  As  for  the 
beauties  of  a,  6,  c,  and  d,  every  one  must  judge  for  himself; 
such  structures  at  least  proclaim  the  wealth  of  the  church,  and 
its  close  relation  with  and  command  over  the  artistic  resource 
of  the  age. 

The  castles,  as  well  as  the  cathedrals,  bear  their  witness. 
Comparing  e  and/  with  Fountains  Hall,  p.  413,  we  realize  at 
once  that  the  world  had  suffered  change  between  the  days  when 


112  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

a  noble  built  his  castle  on  a  forbidding  height,  surrounded  it  by 
inhospitable  moats,  challenged  all  comers  before  giving  them 
the  narrow  passage  of  the  drawbridge,  shut  himself  within 
thick  walls,  peeped  suspiciously  at  the  outside  world  through 
high  and  narrow  slits,  kept  guard  and  watch  on  his  castle 
towers,  —  and  the  days  when  this  same  knight  made  himself  a 
pleasant  house  in  the  open  country,  with  generous  doors  and 
windows,  and  surrounded  it  with  the  attractions  of  wood  and 
field  and  garden ;  the  castle  was  the  necessary  product  of  an 
age  when  each  man  stood  on  his  own  defence,  while  Fountains 
Hall  was  built  in  an  age  of  kings,  when  the  feudal  quarrels 
had  been  suppressed,  and  the  military  resources  of  the  country 
were  massed  in  a  single  hand,  thus  rendered  strong  enough  to 
keep  the  peace,  and  enable  men  to  live  more  freely  and  care- 
lessly than  before. 

The  third  estate,  meanwhile,  is  represented  by  such  noble 
guild-halls  as  that  of  Ypres,  p.  377,  which,  were  it  our  only 
evidence,  would  tell  us  of  the  wealth,  importance,  and  taste  of 
the  merchant  class,  besides  giving  us  a  very  good  list  of  the  in- 
dustries of  the  age. 

The  study  of  laws  often  tells  us  quite  as  much  of  injustice 
as  of  justice ;  that  is,  a  law  generally  tells  us  of  some  unjust 
or  unfortunate  state  of  affairs  which  it  was  intended  to  obviate. 
Thus,  Magna  Charta  clearly  indicates  that  the  English  king 
had  made  excessive  and  arbitrary  demands  for  money,  had 
seized  men's  property  for  his  own  use,  had  over-ridden  the 
ancient  liberties  of  the  towns,  had  sold  and  delayed  justice ; 
that  the  nobles  had  unreasonably  oppressed  their  retainers  for 
more  than  the  customary  feudal  dues ;  that  no  man  was  safe 
from  arbitrary  arrest  and  imprisonment,  and  that  men  were 
often  condemned  without  a  fair  hearing.  Magna  Charta  is 
sometimes  represented  as  the  work  of  the  great  nobles,  but  that 
it  equally  represented  the  third  estate  of  free,  untitled  men,  is 
proved  by  articles  20,  46,  48,  p.  379.  In  the  parallel  French 
demands  (p.  381)  we  see  also  the  union  of  the  nobles  and  com- 
mons against  the  arbitrary  power  of  the  king. 


LATER   MEDIEVAL  PERIOD.  113 

pp.  380,  381,  we  see  the  royal  power 
evidently  directed  to  quell  the  power  and  violence  of  the  nobles, 
and  for  this  purpose  allying  itself  with  the  commons  of  the 
realm  ;  while  e,  p.  382,  shows  the  result  of  this  struggle  in 
establishing  a  monarchy  possessing  unchecked  control  over  the 
composition  of  the  army  and  the  raising  of  the  taxes,  and  thus 
enabled  to  become  a  genuine  absolutism.  Thus,  while  England 
advances  in  political  civilization,  and  finds  herself  possessed  of 
advanced  constitutional  principles,  tending  to  work  themselves 
out  in  practical  forms,  France  finds  herself  retrograding  toward 
the  simpler  form  of  absolute  monarchy. 

The  laws  on  p.  383  are  rather  indicative  of  social  than  politi- 
cal conditions ;  we  see  a  state  dependent  for  defense  on  the 
arms  of  its  free  citizens,  acting  as  volunteers  ;  a  country  still 
insecure,  uncleared,  and  full  of  disorder  ;  a  city  where  all  politi- 
cal power  is  in  the  hands  of  traders,  while  two  of  these  ordi- 
nances throw  a  curious  light  on  the  sincere  interest  and  belief 
of  the  age  in  the  experiments  of  alchemy. 

The  literature  of  this  period  indicates  clearly  enough  that  its 
wrongs  and  abuses  sprang  chiefly  from  two  classes,  the  aristo- 
cratic and  the  clerical;  the  nobles  were  the  oppressors,  —  the 
monks,  the  scandals  of  the  age  ;  the  arbitrary;  petty  wars,  the 
confused  and  unequal  laws,  which  had  their  origin  among  the 
former,  the  extravagance,  luxury,  and  immorality  of  the  latter, 
called  forth  much  complaint  and  invective,  humorously  voiced 
by  Chaucer,  but  sternly  by  Dante,  whose  feeling  was  intensified 
by  his  identification  with  the  Ghibelins^  in  the  long  mediaeval 
strife  of  papal  and  imperial  powers. 

Chaucer  gives  us  the  picture  and  the  temper  of  the  later 
mediaeval  period,  while  Dante  gives  us  its  serious  feeling  and 
thought.  In  the  extracts,  pp.  386-388,  the  condition  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  is  vividly  set  forth.  We  see  at  once  that, 
in  Dante's  mind,  the  ancient  union  still  existed  ;  but  that  its 
ruinous  condition  was  attributed  to  the  imperial  neglect  of  Italy 
and  the  seizure  of  the  temporal  power  by  Rome. 

1  In  his  youth  Dante  had  been  a  Guelph. 


114  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

In  the  extracts  from  Chaucer  we  see  how  thoroughly  the  early 
mediaeval  saint  ideal  of  the  church  had  given  way  to  desires 
for  politeness,  culture,  pleasure,  and  luxury ;  while  the  warrior 
ideal  of  the  Teuton  has  softened  to  the  "very  perfect,  gentle  < 
knight,"  in  fact,  to  the  ideal  ''''gentleman"  and  the  gay  young 
squire,  thoroughl}^  trained  for  the  graceful  accomplishments  of 
the  court,  as  well  as  the  strenuous  duties  of  the  field. ^ 

If  the  teacher  himself  regard  this  age  a  "dark"  one,  he 
may  find  means  of  impressing  this  opinion  on  the  minds  of  his 
pupils ;  to  my  own  view,  it  appears  as  one  of  the  most  rapidly- 
moving  and  important  of  historical  epochs.  While  England 
led  in  politics,  Italy  in  art,  and  France  in  courtesy  and  mate- 
rial elegance,  still  the  whole  of  Europe  "  marched,"  its  various 
states  essentially  abreast. 

Suggestions  for  Examination  and  Essay  "Work.  —  The  guild 

and  the  trades-union ;  their  resemblances  and  differences.  The  assem- 
blies of  estates  and  modern  representative  chambers.  Review  the 
development  of  papacy.  The  town  aristocrats.  Why  should  the 
trading  classes  desire  the  suppression  of  the  nobility?  What  were 
the  great  historic  sources  of  the  civilization  of  this  period.  Why 
should  the  houses  in  European  towns,  dating  back  to  the  fourteenth 
and  fifteenth  centuries,  be  so  built  that  the  people  must  live  in  the 
second  and  third  stories ;  and  why  should  the  streets  of  those  same 
towns  be  so  narrow?  What  reasons  would  a  man  living  in  the 
fifteenth  century  have  for  thinking  the  ruin  of  Europe  near?  What 
reasonable  grounds  might  he  see  for  improvement?  Journal  of  a 
Parisian  merchant  living  in  the  first  half  of  the  fifteenth  century. 
Same  of  a  French  noble.  Same  of  an  English  wool-grower  for  latter 
half  of  the  same  century.  The  advantages  of  kings  to  trade.  Wiclif 
and  St.  Francis  of  Assisi  compared  as  reformers.  The  debt  of  the 
later  mediaeval  period  to  Rome.  To  Greece  and  the  Orient.  The 
secularization  of  the  church.  A  day  in  the  castle  of  Pierrefond. 
"Piper's  day"  at  castle  St.  Ulric.  The  mediaeval  versus  the  Greek 
beauty. 

^  Compare  the  Hst  of  the  squire's  accomplishments  with  the  list  now 
required  for  an  "  accomplished  "  young  lady.  In  both  cases  the  education 
is  a  social  one. 


REFORMATION  AND   RENAISSANCE  ERA.  115 


D,  EErOEMATION  AND   EENAISSANOE  ERA. 

The  general  results  of  the  studies  in  this  period  may  be  thus 
summarized :  — 

REFORMATION  AND  RENAISSANCE,   1492-1648. 

Great  Movements  and  Achievements  of  the  Time. 

Geographical  discovery,  — 

eastward,  led  by  Portugal, 
westward,  led  by  Spain, 
caused  by 

desire  to  discover  routes  to  India, 
desire  to  gain  new  landed  possessions, 
resulting  in 

circumnavigation  of  Africa, 
foundation  of  European  colonies  in  India, 
discovery  and  settlement  of  America, 
development  of  maritime  powers, — ^ 

Holland. 

Spain. 

Portugal. 

England. 

France, 
great  increase  of  commercial  activity, 
change  of  commercial  centre  from  Mediterranean 

to  Atlantic,^  .-. 
decay  of  Italian  commerce. 

1  Note  that  Spain  held  as  strong  a  command  over  all  the  westward  com- 
merce of  the  Mediterranean  as  Constantinople  over  that  of  the  Black  Sea ; 
this,  combined  with  her  own  free  access  to  transatlantic  shores,  made  her 
one  of  the  leaders  of  the  new  commerce.  "Without  this  command,  France, 
Portugal,  England,  and  Holland  had  the  freedom  of  access ;  and  in  the 
case  of  Holland,  her  connection  with  Spain  during  the  period  of  discovery 
very  probably  gave  her  her  first  commercial  experience  and  impulse, 
strengthened  by  her  own  half-maritime  life  and  the  poverty  of  her  inter- 
nal resources. 

2  The  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  our  own  time  may  tend  to  restore 
the  commercial  activity  of  the  Mediterranean  lands  < 


116  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Reformation  and  Renaissance.  —  Continued. 
Revolt  against  the  church, 
caused  or  favored  by 

intellectual  dissent  from  her  doctrines 

(England  and  Europe  in  general), 
desire  of  monarchs  for  entire  independence 

(England), 
disapproval  of  her  methods  and  morals 

(Germany  and  Europe  in  general), 
internal  corruption, —     • 
avarice, 
luxury, 
immorality, 
ignorance, 
mediaeval  quarrels  of  church  and  state  >  ^ 
independence  of  Teutonic  character      ) 
resulting  in 

formation  of  national  churches, 
formation  of  various  Protestant  sects, 
internal  reform  (the  Jesuit  movement). 
Production  of  masterpieces,  — 

in  painting,  Italy,  Germany, 
in  dramatic  literature,  England. 
Overthrow  of  the  feudal  monarchy  in  England, 
caused  by 

taxation  without  representation. ^ 
intolerance  toward  dissenting  sects.^ 
For  results,  see  next  period  (note  colonizations). 

Facts  of  Organization. 

Formation  of  the  strong  centralized  feudal  monarchies  of  th* 
"  Old  Regime  " 
in  France, 
in  England, 
in  Spain. 

^  The  first  of  these  grievances  evidently  antedated  Magna  Charta; 
while  the  second  began  to  be  oppressive  under  Elizabeth ;  constitutional 
measures  on  the  part  of  the  king,  and  tolerance  on  the  part  of  the  people, 
might  have  averted  the  Civil  Wars. 


REFORMATION  AND  RENAISSANCE  ERA.  117 

brought  about  by 

consolidation  of  lands  in  royal  hands,  through 
inheritance, 
conquest, 
marriage, 
formation  of  standing  armies, 
common  interests  of  king  and  people  in 
religion, 
commerce. 
Formation  of  independent  national  churches  in 
England. 
Scotland. 
Switzerland, 
various  German  states. 
Formation  of  national  units  (France,  England,  Spain), 
bound  togther  by 
language, 
faith. 

loyalty  to  a  single  king. 

common  interests  of  natural  geographical  units, 
represented  by  national,  hereditary  monarchs. 
Foundation  of  extra-European,  Christian  colonies 
in  Asia, 
in  America. 
Weakness  and  disintegration  of  the  Empire,^ 
seen  in 

difficulty  in  quelling  peasants'  war. 
territorial  gains  of  France  and  Spain,  at  the  ex- 
pense of  the  Empire, 
along  the  Rhine, 
in  Italy, 
sovereign  political  power  held  by  princes. 
peace  of  Westphalia, 
caused  by 

inherent  weakness  of  imperial  office, 
dissensions  of  Catholics  and  Protestants. 


1  Under  Charles  the  Fifth,  who  was  such  an  extensive  land-owner  by 
his  ancestral  heritages,  the  Empire  temporarily  revived. 


118  STUDIES  m  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Reformation  and  Renaissance.  —  Continued. 
culminating  in 

Thirty  Years'  War. 
imperial  loss  of 

Switzerland. 
Holland.i 
loose  confederation  of  sovereign  states,  nominally 
under  the  emperor. 

Characteristics  of  the  Age. 

Leading  interests,  religion,  and  trade,  seen  in 

r  civil  wars  of  France,  Germany, 
causes  of  war       >  J      England, 

treaties  of  peace  >  '         1  "  Great  Armada." 

^  Thirty  Years'  War. 
objects  of  Columbus  and  other  explorers, 
missionary  enterprise, 
religious  intolerance, 
literary  productions,  — 

translations  of  Bible, 
popular  satires, 
artistic  subjects. 
Change  of  the  noble  from  a  military  to  a  courtly  and  cultured  class, 
caused  by 

massing  of  political  and  military  power  in  royal 

hands, 
employment  of  gunpowder  and  standing  armies, 
resulting  in 

their  appearance  in 
literature. 
art. 

adventure.^ 
use  of  feudal  wealth  in  art  and  display. 
Dissatisfaction  of  the  fourth  estate,  seen  in 
German  peasant  wars, 
outcry  against  enclosures  in  England. 

1  Italy  went  piecemeal,  being  common  booty  for  France,  Spain,  and 
Austria,  from  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  till  the  days  of  Victor 
Emmanuel. 

2  Note  the  earl^  leader?  of  discovery. 


REFORMATION  AND   RENAISSANCE  ERA.  119 

Intense  and  varied  intellectual  activity,  seen  in 
Reformation  movement, 
revival  of  learning,  — 

Latin  language  and  literature. 
Greek  language  and  literature, 
favored  by  Reformation.^ 
new  forms  of  literature,  — 
drama, 
essay. 
romance, 
revolt  against,  Aristotle  ^  in 
Platonic  movement, 
inductive  philosophy  of  Bacon, 
study  of  natural  science. ^ 

appeal  to  reason  and  observation  as  bases  of  truth.'* 
Increase  of  domestic  comfort  and  safety. 
Strong  influence  of  classic  antiquity,  seen  in 
art. 

education. 

literature  (translations,  imitations,  themes). 
International  action  and  reaction,  seen  in 

international  w^ars.  ' 

*  importation  or  travel  of  artists  from  country  to  country, 
translations.  3 
Italian  influence 

in  English  literature.^ 
on  French  manufacture. 

1  The  same  intellectual  impulse  which  urged  men  to  the  study  of  nature 
in  science,  urged  them  to  the  study  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew  originals  in 
theology.     (See  Luther's  letter,  p.  424.) 

2  The  first  two  statements  are  in  reality  but  particulars  under  the  third, 
which  marks  the  age  in  religion,  art,  and  thought.  The  original  source,  be 
It  the  revealed  truth,  the  natural  form,  or  the  untranslated  classic,  is  the 
object  of  desire.  In  this  desire,  Italy  herself  led,  though  it  was  beyond 
her  power  to  achieve. 

^  The  translations  of  the  great  works  of  antiquity  and  of  the  Middle 
Age  undoubtedly  had  their  influence  in  unifying  Europe,  since  they  gave 
her  a  common  body  of  literary  material  from  which  to  start, —  an  in- 
fluence greatly  facilitated  by  the  new  invention  of  printing,  which  likewise 
quickened  the  influence  of  one  country  on  another,  as  of  Italy  on  England. 


120  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

It  has  been  the  custom,  in  many  of  oui'  text-books,  to  date 
the  beginning  of  modern  history  at  1453,  or  at  1492 ;  but  al- 
though new  elements  then  appear,  still  the  great  events,  the 
characteristic  forms  of  the  Renaissance,  seem  to  be  the  culmi- 
nation of  the  whole  feudal,  mediaeval  period.  From  the  long 
struggles  of  king  and  baron,  strong-handed  monarchies  emerged  ; 
from  the  long  quarrels  of  temporal  and  spiritual  powers  within 
the  Empire,  and  the  long-felt  intellectual  revolt  against  an 
ancient,  detailed  creed,  the  Reformation  sprang  ;  Columbus  was 
the  greatest  of  a  line  of  daring  Italian  travellers  and  navigators 
who  prepared  his  way  ;  in  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo,  bloomed 
the  Christian  art  which  Italy  had  never  failed  to  cherish  through 
all  her  mediaeval  confusion.^ 

Meanwhile,  the  absolutely  new,  the  modern  impulses  that 
began  in  these  centuries  did  not  characterize  them,  but  awaited 
their  development  in  a  later  era.  For  these  reasons,  then,  it 
has  seemed  best  not  to  use  the  word  "modern"  nntil  1648 
be  passed,  and  to  treat  this  period  as  the  climax  of  that 
Catholic  and  feudal  civilization  which  had  slowl}-  formed  the 
states  of  Europe  during  the  mediaeval  age ;  the  m9re  so  since 
such  a  view  gives  significance  and  meaning  to  all  the  struggles, 
imperfections,  and  confusions  necessary  to  develop  the  strong, 
clear  forms  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

In  comparing  the  map  on  p.  397  with  that  on  pp.  316,  317, 
the  most  striking  changes  noted  are  the  respective  enlargement 
of  the  French  and  Spanish  territories,  and  the  obliteration  of 
their  feudal  divisions ;  this  at  once  tells  the  story  of  the  royal 
strength  within  their  boundaries,  and  their  appearance  as  fully 
formed  national  count7"y -states^  as  opposed  to  the  tribal  city- 
states  of  antiquity.  Here,  again,  the  teacher  should  enforce 
the  point,  that  landed  possession  lay  at  the  foundation  of  all 
political  and  military  power  under  the  feudal  system.  Thus 
Charles  the  Fifth  became  the  strongest   monarch  of  his  age, 

1  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  Italy  was,  par  excellence,  the  land  o/ 
the  church  and  the  popes. 


KEFOEMATION   AND  RENAISSANCE  ERA.  121 

through  his  inheritance  of  family  titles  to  European  lands ;  al- 
though America  was  also  included  in  his  empire,  still  its  unmanage- 
able distance,  and  the  fact  that  it  was  neither  cultivated  nor  settled, 
and  so  unable  to  yield  either  taxes  or  troops,  made  it  of  little 
value  as  a  basis  of  political  power,  although  from  the  first  it 
was  a  rich  source  of  the  raw  materials  of  commerce.^  From 
this  desire  for  land,  Italy  was  the  greatest  sufferer ;  divided 
among  many  pett}'  powers,  incapable  of  union,  and  yet  too 
strong  to  be  subdued,  under  the  nominal  rule  of  an  emperor 
who  had  more  than  he  could  rightly  manage  on  the  northern 
side  of  the  Alps,  —  Italy  was,  as  Dante  named  her,  an  "  inn  of 
grief "  ;  indeed,  the  events  of  the  sixteenth  century-  (c)  show 
that  her  possession  was  one  of  the  great  ambitions  common  to 
the  European  powers  or,  to  speak  more  justly,  to  the  European 
monarchs,  for  within  this  age,  the  monarchs  were  indeed  the 
powers  of  Europe,  with  their  standing  armies  and  consolidated 
territories.  Proof  of  this  is  seen  in  the  arbitrary  rule  of  Philip 
the  Second  of  Spain,  of  Francis  the  First  in  France,  of  Henry 
the  Eighth  of  England.  Nothing  more  thoroughly  displayed  their 
strength  than  their  ability  to  deal  absolutely'  with  the  strongest 
interest  of  the  age,  religious  faith,  and  to  impose  at  will  the 
Catholic  or  Protestant  creed  upon  their  subjects  ;  ^  the  same  fact 
shows  how  thoroughly  the  monarchies  embodied  the  spirit  of 
centralization,  of  national  unity,  and  it  may  perhaps  be  argued 
that  the  high-handed  intolerance  with  which  Jews  and  Moors 
were  driven  from  Spain,  Huguenots  massacred  in  France,  Dis- 
senters suppressed  in  England,  was  a  historic  necessity  in  the 
formation  of  self-sustaining  national   units, ^  considering  how 

1  To  France  and  England,  America  soon  added  to  this  advantage  that 
of  serving  as  an  asylum  for  rehgious  refugees. 

2  In  France,  their  difficulty  was  enhanced  by  the  fact  that  the  religious 
parties  revived  the  historic  antagonism  of  king  and  noble. 

3  One  must  not  say  too  much,  however,  on  this  point,  unless  he  wishes 
logically  to  find  himself  on  the  side  of  Bismarck,  in  his  attempt  to  drive 
the  Poles  from  Prussian  Poland.  In  illustration,  however,  of  the  royal 
side  of  the  question,  see  Queen  Elizabeth's  letter,  p.  482. 


122  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

high  the  feeling  ran  between  men  of  opposing  creeds.  Thus 
the  censorship  of  tlie  press  was  felt  almost  from  the  beginning 
to  be  a  necessity  both  by  the  pope,  and  by  the  various  absolute 
monarchs,  since  their  centralized  powers  depended  too  thoroughly 
on  men's  universal  approval  to  render  wide-spread  intellectual 
dissent  and  free  discussion  safe.  To  the  centralization  of 
wealth  and  power  in  the  hands  of  their  kings,  the  countries  of 
Western  Europe  owed,  however,  much  of  their  material  and 
commercial  progress.  In  England,  France,  and  Spain,  the 
court  was  the  centre  of  impulse  for  discovery,  colonization,  art, 
and  literature.  If  the  teacher  have  the  time,  he  will  find  that 
a  very  valuable  sub-study  may  be  made  in  this  connection  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  whose  reign  displayed  absolutism,  perhaps, 
at  its  best,  although  its  more  objectionable  features  were  not 
so  much  absent  as  overshadowed.^  In  the  reign  of  James  the 
First,  on  the  contrary,  these  were  the  more  decided  features ; 
the  expenses  of  the  court  devoured  the  earnings  of  the  land 
which  in  justice  should  have  been  spent  for  the  good  of  its 
people  (see  member  for  Oxford's  speech,  p.  433)  ;  taxes  had 
been  imposed  without  consent  of  Parliament ;  worst  of  all,  the 
king  attempted  to  suppress  the  free  speech  of  its  members.  It 
was  the  old  feudal  contest  with  the  old  feudal  weapons  all  over 
again  ;  the  king  was  poor,  and  must  have  money  from  his 
estates,  who,  on  their  part,  would  grant  nothing  without  con- 
cessions of  justice  from  the  king.  In  the  debate  accompanying 
the  Petition  of  Right,  pp.  433,  434,  it  is  plainly  evident  that 
men's  minds  yet  clung  to  the  feudal  theory  of  a  king's  support, 
and  felt  that  he  should  meet  his  own  expenses  from  his  own 
domain,  the  modern  system  of  paying  him  a  regular  annual  sum 
from  a  civil  service  list,  whose  charges  are  met  by  popular 
taxes,  not  yet  having  been  invented. 

^  At  least  he  should  stop  to  note,  that  as  a  strong  and  noble  nationaltj 
calls  forth  the  ardent  patriotism  of  its  citizens,  so  a  strong,  wise,  truly 
"paternal"  monarch  calls  forth  the  warm  loyalty  of  his  subjects  (see 
i&ndj,  p.  430). 


KEFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  123 

These  causes  of  the  EngUsh  civil  wars,  however,  would  seem 
to  have  been  subordinate  to  those  arising  from  religious  dis- 
sent;  judging  from  Hobbes'  "Leviathan,"  and  the  "Solemn 
League,"  this  was  the  cause  which  drove  men  on  to  war. 

The  Scots'  "Solemn  League  and  Covenant"  is  one  of  the 
most  significant  documents  of  the  age  ;  it  breathes  a  solemn 
biblical  intensity  of  faith ;  it  holds  by  an  absolute  union  of 
church  and  state,  in  which  the  state  shall  be  composed  of  the 
church,  with  the  king  for  its  executive  servant ;  ^  it  is  of  neces- 
sity intolerant  of  Catholics  and  members  of  the  established 
church.  In  all  these  ways  it  reflects  the  spirit  and  thought  of 
the  time,  from  the  Puritan  point  of  view,  as  Hobbes'  "  Levia- 
than "  reflects  it  from  the  Royalist  standpoint. 

It  is  generally  felt  that  the  Reformation  is  a  rather  delicate 
subject  to  deal  with,  so  closely  does  it  touch  our  own  living 
interests.  It  is  true  that  the  movement  is  too  often  solely 
regarded  from  the  Protestant  standpoint,  and  explained  exclu- 
sively as  a  great  theological  revolution.  But  a  comparison  of 
the  decrees  of  the  Council  of  Trent  and  of  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession will  show  that  the  theological  differences  were  minor, 
while  the  practical  questions  of  the  marriage  of  priests  and  the 
relation  of  church  and  state  were  revolutionary  ;  the  Protestant 
position  of  a  "free  church  in  a  free  state"  was  indeed  so 
opposed  to  the  whole  European  system  from  the  earliest  times, 
that  not  even  the  Protestants  themselves  knew  how  in  that  age 
to  achieve  it.  Moreover,  a  due  remembrance  of  the  tendencies 
and  facts  of  later  mediaeval  history  will  show  that  the  Reforma- 
tion was  the  inevitable  culmination  of  the  secularization  of  the 
church,  of  national  revolt  against  centralization,  of  intellectual 
revolt  against  authority.  Luther  came  in  the  ".fulness  of 
time,"  the  successor  of  Wiclif  and  Huss,  and  with  a  body  of 
long-gathering  popular  favor  to  sustain  him.     The  facts  that 

1  Compare  Cowell's  "  Interpreter,"  where  the  king  is  regarded  as  the 
source  of  law  and  above  the  law ;  in  the  Puritan  and  Scotch  view,  the 
king  is  but  the  executive  of  fixed  law. 


124  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

the  strongest  spirits  of  the  age  were  his  upholders  or  fore- 
runners, that  half  the  people  of  Europe  were  his  admirers  or 
followers,  and  that  for  more  than  a  century  the  questions 
voiced  so  boldl}'  by  Luther  shook  Europe  with  war,  prove 
clearly  that  he  was  a  representative  man,  a  man  who  spoke 
for  half  the  world,  a  necessary  man,  demanded  by  the  stress 
of  contemporary  thought  and  feeling.  If  time  and  cir- 
cumstance favor,  the  teacher  can  make  a  most  admirable  char- 
acter study  on  Luther,  whose  power  largely  consisted  in  his 
honesty,  directness,  independence,  and  passionate  love  of  truth. 
Even  in  the  extracts  given,  pp.  423,  424,  it  is  plainly  to  be 
seen  that  he  was  eminently  a  conservative,  and  that  his  respect 
for  the  authority  of  the  church  was  only  exceeded  by  loyalty  to 
the  best  truth  he  could  discern. 

That  the  church  was  in  need  of  reformation  was  clearly 
proved  by  the  calling  of  the  Council  of  Trent,  and  the  earnest, 
wide-spread  Jesuit  movement ;  within  her  precincts  occurred  a 
true  reform,  whose  effects  have  lasted  to  the  present  time ; 
while  the  so-called  Reformation  was  more  of  the  nature  of  a  re- 
volt, ending  in  the  secession  of  the  Teutonic  races  from  that  Latin 
church  which  had  claimed  to  be  the  head  and  heart  of  Christen- 
dom. So  thoroughly,  however,  had  the  church  made  itself 
one  with  all  the  secular  interests  of  Europe,  that  this  secession 
could  only  be  accomplished  either  through  great  political  dis- 
turbance, or  by  an  appeal  to  arms  ;  and  even  then,  as  seen  in 
the  peace  of  Augsburg,  it  was  still  thought  necessary  for  each 
prince  to  settle  the  religion  of  his  own  subjects ;  unjust  as 
this  seems  to  modern  ideas,  we  must  always  remember  that 
differences  in  religion  then  meant  civil  war.  In  fact,  of  the 
two  leading  interests  of  the  age,  religion  and  trade,  religion 
was  the  stronger,  as  proved  by  the  facts,  that,  in  opj^osition  to 
all  commercial  considerations,  such  useful  industrial  popula- 
tions as  the  Huguenots  in  France,  or  the  Moors  in  Spain,  were 
expelled  or  massacred  ;  while  the  ruling  motive  of  the  most 
important  wars  was  decidedly  religious  difference.  That  this 
motive  affected  peoples  as  thoroughly  as  kings  is  proved  by 


REFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  125 

the  fact  that  it  was  the  motive  of  popular  revolt  and  civil  war 
as  well  as  of  international  contest.^  One  of  the  most  interesting 
and  picturesque  illustrations  of  this  prevailing  spirit  of  the 
ase  is  to  be  seen  in  all  the  events  connected  with  the  Great 
Armada.  Its  first  object  purported  to  be  the  recovery  of 
England  from  heresy ;  its  second,  to  cripple  forever  a  foe 
already  felt  to  be  dangerous  to  Spanish  commerce  and  coloniza- 
tion. On  the  side  of  the  English  and  Dutch,  meanwhile,  the 
strongest  defence  against  this  mighty  fleet  was  believed  to  be 
national  prayer,  and  its  misfortune  and  defeat  were  felt  to  be 
surely  due  to  divine  interposition. 

These  wars  of  the  Reformation  essentially  ended  with  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  one  of  the  most  important  conflicts  of 
modern  times,  not  only  on  account  of  its  magnitude  and  length, 
but  because  it  made  important  changes  on  the  European  map ; 
while,  during  its  progress,  religious  differences  wearied  them- 
selves out,  or  were  settled  with  sufficient  tolerance  to  render 
Europe  quiet.  It  is  significant  to  note  in  this  connection,  that 
France  under  the  lead  of  Cardinal  Richelieu  already  subordi- 
nated religious  to  political  interests,  since  she  entered  the  war 
on  the  side  of  the  Protestants,  in  order  still  further  to  weaken 
her  neighbor,  the  emperor,  and  disunite  the  Empire. 

At  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth  century  the  kings  of  the 
West  had  pretty  well  escaped  from  the  tyranny  of  the  feudal 
nobles ;  not  so  the  peasants.  Their  complaints  in  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  and  the  account  of  their  state  given  in  More's  Utopia, 
show  that  they  had  been  deprived  of  their  ancient  use  of  the 
land,  and  of  their  old  common  rights  to  forest  and  waste, 
which  they  had  inherited  from  their  Teutonic  ancestors.  In 
England,  the  practice  of  the  landlords  of  turning  their  lands 
into  sheep-farms  greatly  injured  the  poorer  agricultural  class, 

1  In  the  Peasants'  War,  the  program  of  the  peasants  clearly  shows  how 
thoroughly  social  and  political  change  seemed  to  them  the  natural  accom- 
paniment of  religious  reform,  since,  in  all  their  experience,  these  elements 
were  inextricably  involved  in  the  consolidated  structure  under  which  they 
had  always  lived. 


126  STUDIES  IN   GENEEAL  HISTORY. 

''for,"  as  More  says,  ''one  shepherd  ...  is  enough  to  eat  up 
that  ground  with  cattle,  to  the  occupying  whereof  about  hus- 
bandry many  hands  were  requisite."  These  "hands"  being 
driven  from  their  accustomed  labor,  unconsciously  revenged 
themselves  upon  the  state  by  becoming  paupers,  vagabonds,  and 
thieves,  thus  changing  from  a  valuable  to  a  mischievous  popu- 
lation ;  nor  did  the  sheep-pastures  help  to  ameliorate  this  state 
of  things  by  cheapening  any  necessity  of  life,  since  the  land- 
lords were  so  wealthy  and  few  that  they  easily  monopolized  the 
trade  in  wool,  holding  the  prices  where  they  would. 

The  discoveries  of  the  period  were  as  pureh'  commercial  in 
their  character  as  any  of  its  undertakings.  Yet  the  letter  of 
Columbus^  (p.  421)  shows  how  thoroughly  zeal  for  the  spread 
of  the  Catholic  faith  was  mingled  with  the  more  secular  objects 
of  conquest  and  trade.  From  the  very  first,  moreover,  as  is 
seen  from  the  letter  of  Raleigh,  national  jealousies  began  to 
arise  over  these  new-world  possessions,  England  fearing  lest 
Spain  should  become  "  unresistible  "  through  these  wealthy 
lands. 

The  special  original  art  of  the  Renaissance  was  painting,  an 
art  which  reflected  the  three  strong  intellectual  tendencies  of 
the  age.  It  borrowed  its  subjects  from  religion ;  it  sought  its 
principles  from  Greek  antiquity  ;  it  drew  its  immediate  inspira- 
tion from  the  direct  study  of  nature  ;  these  facts  are  illustrated 
by  nearly  every  work  of  Raphael  and  Michael  Angelo.  In 
architecture,  also,  the  antique  forms  appeared  in  the  new  combi- 
nations. In  the  court  of  the  Borghese  palace  are  mingled  the 
Roman  arch,  the  Greek  pillar,  and  the  medineval  statue,  while 
in  St.  Peter's,  a  similar  combination  is  overtopped  by  the 
Oriental  dome.     While  it  is  to  be  noted  in  this  connection,  that 

*  If  the  teacher  have  the  time  and  material  at  hand,  he  can  make  a 
most  interesting  study  of  Columbus,  whose  Hfe  and  character  embodied 
much  of  the  circumstances  and  spirit  of  the  age.  Even  in  tlie  extract 
given,  we  see  the  loyalty,  zeal,  and  modesty  of  this  wonderful  man,  who 
has  become  too  much  of  a  name  "  to  conjure  by,"  instead  of  being  present 
to  our  minds  as  a  genuine  and  noble  reality. 


KEFORMATION   AND   RENAISSANCE   ERA.  127 

the  fine  arts  of  the  Renaissance  owed  their  development  to  the 
patronage  of  courts  and  wealthy  Italian  merchants,  still  it  must 
be  remembered  that  opportunity  and  not  inspiration  was  thus 
supplied. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  map  of 

Europe,  the  political  pictm-e  of  the  age.  General  view  of  the  miity  of 
the  church  from  325  to  1648.  The  political  view  of  the  Reformation. 
The  three  emperors,  Augustus,  Charlemagne,  and  Charles  the  Fifth. 
Famous  monks.  Why  did  not  Italy  and  Germany  become  feudal 
monarchies  like  France  and  Spain?  "  The  ships  of  Tarshish."  Was 
religious  toleration,  as  we  understand  it,  possible  in  the  Reformation  ? 
(Debate.)  In  what  ways  was  the  Renaissance  the  culmination  of 
mediaeval  civilization?  The  crimes  of  the  sixteenth  century.  Extracts 
from  the  diary  of  a  Protestant  Dutchman,  who  emigrated  to  Manhattan 
Island.  Same  of  an  English  Catholic  emigrating  to  Maryland.  The 
history  embodied  in  the  Escorial.  Was  patronage  necessary  to  the 
development  of  the  Renaissance  art?  How  could  literature  become 
somewhat  free  from  patronage  in  this  age  ?  How  did  the  discovery  of 
America  aifect  religious  energy.  Bacon  v.  Aristotle.  Effect  of  gun- 
powder on  the  occupation  of  the  knight.  What  was  the  significance  of 
the  appearance  of  Don  Quixote  ?  The  palace  u.  the  castle.  How  does 
the  public  lighting  of  a  city  indicate  a  great  advance  in  civilization  ? 
Luther  and  Socrates.  Observations  of  an  Italian  travelling  in  Eng- 
land in  the  time  of  Elizabeth. 


128  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

E.   MODERN  EUEOPE,   1648-1880. 

I.  Aa.  General  Study  on  **  Old  Regime  ^'  in  Europe ;  Age 
of  Louis  XI v.,  Frederick  the  Great,  Anne  and  the 
Georges,  Maria  Theresa,  Peter  the  Great, 

A  word  should  be  given  in  explanation  of  the  phrase,  "  Old 
Regime "  ;  strictly  speaking,  the  term  should  be  applied  to 
feudal  as  distinct  from  constitutional  governments  ;  but  I  have 
used  it  as  applying  to  the  absolute  monarchies  and  aristocratic 
societies  developed  from  feudalism,  whose  power  culminated  or 
began  to  be  broken  during  this  period. 

The  studies,  pp.  446,  451,  458,  may  be  summarized  as 
follows :  — 

GENERAL  VIEW   OF   "OLD   REGIME,"   1G48-1789. 

Organizations  of  Period. 

Absolute  governments  in 

ranee  [  developed  from  feudal  royalty. 

Austria    \ 

Sardinia  >  developed  from  feudal  imperial  "  marches."  ^ 
Prussia    ) 
Russia. 
Military  despotism  in  England,  under  constitutional  forms, 
appearing  as  the 

commonwealth,  —  republican  form. 

protectorate,  —  limited  autocracy  of  Cromwell.^ 

^  These  imperial  marches  were  geographically  so  placed  as  to  be 
involved  in  all  European  affairs.  Thus,  Savoy  was  always  a  felt  power 
in  all  wars  involving  Italy,  Germany,  France,  and  Spain ;  Brandenburg 
lay  between  the  Northern  and  Western  groups  of  European  states,  while 
Austria  was  still  the  bulwark  of  Europe  against  the  Turk.  The  strength 
of  the  Empire  lay  in  its  separate  members,  not  in  its  body. 

^  Although  in  form  limited,  the  powers  assumed  by  Cromwell  differed 
little  from  those  of  the  monarchs  of  the  "  Old  Regime  " ;  the  source  of 
his  power,  however,  was  popular  rather  than  hereditary,  and  Parliament 
alone  could  raise  taxes  or  grant  supplies  —  notable  differences. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  129 

Constitutional  monarchy  in  England, 
limited  or  checked  by- 
fixed  income  of  the  king, 
parliamentary  control  of 
law. 
finance, 
army, 
ministerial    responsibility    and   majority   (party) 
influence. 
Republics  in 

America,  Switzerland. 
England  (see  military  despotism). 
Holland. 
Temporary  European  leagues,  for  purposes  of 
maintaining  "  Balance  of  Power." 
securing  international  justice, 
obtaining  favorable  commercial  terms. 
Great  Movements  of  Age. 

International  and  colonial  wars, 
caused  by  ^ 

ill-defined  boundaries. 

commercial  inequalities. 

disputed  successions  to  various  thrones. 

desires  of  Lewis  XIV.  and  Frederic  the  Great  for 

more  territory. 
Turkish  invasion. 

limited  harborage  and  coast-line  of  the  Baltic. 
"  Balance  of  Power  "  system, 
waged  in  the  interests  of 

kings  and  merchants. 

1  These  causes  may  be  grouped  under  the  two  very  general  heads  of 
"  A  desire  to  win,  keep,  or  increase  royal  power  of  the  feudal  type,"  and 
"A  desire  for  commercial  advantage";  after  gaining  the  points  given  in 
the  summary,  the  teacher  might  set  the  question,  "  Reduce  these  causes 
to  two  general  statements,"  as  an  exercise  in  generahzation.  On  compar- 
ing these  causes  of  war  with  those  of  the  preceding  period,  it  will  at  once 
appear  how  decidedly  men's  minds  had  passed  from  religious  to  secular 
interests.  Of  course,  so  far  as  these  wars  grew  out  of  desire  for  terri- 
tory, they  naturally  resulted  from  the  feudal  organization,  which  associ- 
ated dominion  with  land-ownership. 


130  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

General  View  of  "Old  Regime." — Continued. 
resulting  in 

development  of  groups  ^  of  European  lands,  — 

Western:  Spain,  France,  England,  Nether- 
lands ;  Germany,  Italy,  and  Austria, 
involved. 
Northern :  Scandinavia,  Denmark,  northern 

states  of  Germany,  Russia,  Poland. 
South-eastern :  Turkey ;  Austria  and  Russia 
involved. 
colonial  and  commercial  annoyance  and  disturb- 
ance, 
devastation  of  European  lands, 
misery  of  common  people  through 
disturbance  of  occupation, 
ruin  of  land  and  home, 
military  service, 
taxes. 
Revolt,  or  tendency  to  revolt,  against  "  Old  Regime  "  in 
England,  America,  France. 

Relative  Strength  of  European  States. 

France  strongest  in  age  of  Lewis  XIV.,  >  ,  i 

Austria  second  in  rank,  > 

territorial  gains ;  European  alliances  against  them. 

Brandenburg  most  rapidly  growing  state,  proved  by 
value  and  power  in  military  affairs, 
comparison  of  territory  at  beginning  and  close  of  period. 

Italy  weakest  during  whole  period,  proved  by  her  constant  ter- 
ritorial loss. 

Poland  most  rapidly  losing  power,  proved  by 

her  comparative  share  in  affairs  at  beginning  and  end  of 

age. 
her  first  partition. 

1  Note  that  the  leaders  of  the  Western  group  are  the  lands  of  the 
Rhine  and  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  The  Northern  group  lias  tlie  Baltic  for 
its  commercial  centre,  the  Soutli-eastern  group  has  the  Black  Sea,  with 
Constantinople  for  its  Gibraltar.  Again,  the  Western  group  was  bound 
together  by  its  historic  relations  with  Home. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  131 

England  first  commercial  and  naval  power  i    >  note  treaties  and 
Holland  second  commercial  and  naval  power  )  wars. 

Characteristics  of  Age. 

Absolutism  of  monarchs,  displaying  itself  in 
disposal  2  of  European  lands ;  note  the 
"  Chambers  of  Reunion." 
seizure  of  Strasburg. 
treaties  of  Utrecht  and  Rastadt. 
divisions  of  Italy, 
seizure  of  Silesia, 
partition  of  Poland, 
arbitrary  ^  declarations  of  war  on  their  own  behalf. 
Decrease  of  religious  intolerance,  seen  in 
changed  causes  of  wars, 
spirit  and  material  of  literature. 
Growth  of  republican,  democratic,  revolutionary  ideas  in  litera- 
ture. 
Growth  of  positive  intellectual  interests. 
Natural  science,  — 
chemistry, 
physics, 
astronomy. 

botany.  y  New. 

zoology. 
Political  economy. 
Philosophy  of  history  and  politics  (common  to 

England  and  France). 
Mental   and  moral  philosophy  (common  to  all 
Europe). 
Development  of  literature  as  a  political,  social,  religious,  and 
moral  power,  seen  in 

close  relation  of  English  literature,  politics,  and  religion 
of  seventeenth  century. 

^  The  English  possession  of  Gibraltar,  giving  her  the  command  of  the 
Mediterranean,  was  one  of  her  most  important  commercial  acquisitions. 

2  These  may  be  regarded  as  euphemisms  for  actions  which,  in  private 
life,  and  on  a  petty  scale,  would  be  described  as  dishonest,  mean,  cruel,  or 
unjust. 


132  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

General  View  of  "Old  Regime."  —  Continued. 

new,  popular  classes  of  literature,  — 
periodicals, 
novels. 

satirical  attacks  (note  caricature  also). 

influence  of  English  politics  on  French  thought. 

censorship  of  the  press. 
Foundations  for  truth,  sought  in 

nature. 

reason. 

history. 
Growth  of  philanthropic  spirit. 
General  material  and  intellectual  progress,  favored  by 

royal  interest  and  patronage. 

enormous  development  of  popular  literature. 

invention  of  machinery  {the  steam-engine). 

invention  of  apparatus. 

Nothing  more  strongly  marks  the  political  progress  of  this 
age  than  the  drawing  together  of  the  states  of  Europe  into  a 
single  commonwealth  of  nations,  conscious  of  mutual  relations 
and  interests.  This  consciousness  expressed  itself  in  constant 
attempts  to  preserve  the  "Balance  of  Power"  by  temporary 
alliances  against  any  state  which,  for  the  time  being,  threatened 
to  become  too  strong  for  her  neighbors,  or  by  such  compro- 
mises as  that  by  which  Poland  was  first  divided  between  the 
jealous  powers  about  her. 

While  a  general  system  of  European  politics  was  thus  develop- 
ing, England  was  leading  the  way  to  the  modern  system  of  govern- 
ment, that  depends  for  its  support  on  popular  suffrage,  and 
organizes  itself  in  representative  forms.  Even  the  restored 
Stuarts  belonged  rather  to  the  modern  than  the  old  regime ^ 
and  from  the  fall  of  Charles  the  First,  England  could  no 
longer  be  properly  classed  as  a  feudal  state,  although  many 
feudal  forms  remained,  notably  the  old  assembly  of  the  first 
estate  in  the  House  of  Lords.  From  that  time,  the  House 
of  Commons  became  the  sti'ongest  political  power  in  Eng- 
land, although   at   first    it   used   that   power  so  timidly,  that 


MODERN   EUROPE.  133 

often  the  king  still  had  his  way ;  but  that  Parliament  was  in 
reality  the  stronger  is  proved  by  the  inability  of  either  of  the 
restored  Stuarts  to  carry  their  measures  quite  against  its  will. 
But  with  the  "  Declaration  of  Rights,"  Parliament  became  visi- 
bly the  chief  political  power,  since  it  held  in  its  own  hands  the 
constant  control  of  the  law,  of  the  treasure,  of  the  army.  In 
this  expressed  change  consisted  the  accompHshed  "Revolution 
of  1688,"  a  revolution  which  the  Commons  could  easily  main- 
tain by  the  absolute  dependence  of  the  executive  upon  them 
for  financial  support.  Shortly  after  this  revolution,  two  new 
features  of  the  constitution  became  decidedly  visible :  one,  the 
development  of  a  responsible  ministry  in  sympathy  with  the 
majority  of  the  popular  vote ;  ^  the  other,  the  development  of 
rival  parties  in  the  country ;  each  part}'  striving  to  educate 
public  opinion  according  to  its  own  standards  and  desires  ;  and 
each  party  driving  or  driven  in  turn  to  the  various  political 
reforms  called  for  by  actual  circumstance  or  b}'  popular  theory. 
When  one  notes  how  all  the  tendencies,  interests,  and  posi- 
tive growths  of  this  time  are  those  which  are  still  in  our  own 
century,  urging  their  way  to  culmination,  he  may  perhaps  feel 
justified  in  including  the  age  in  the  modern  period,  in  spite  of 
the  completed  feudal  forms  it  presents  in  leading  states.  But 
the  states'  system  of  Europe,  the  appearance  of  popular  repre- 
sentation in  government,  of  religious  toleration,-  of  free  speech 
and  popular  agitation  in  regard  to  the  gravest  affairs,  —  of 
machine  work  in  industry,  of  the  novel  and  the  newspaper  in 
literature,  the  development  of  natural  science,  the  growth  of 
philanthropy,  —  all  these  things  unite  the  age  with  ours  by 
close  organic  ties. 

1  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  "  popular  vote  "  of  the  whole  of 
this  period  was  ver}-^  limited,  according  to  present  standards,  and  that  the 
House  of  Commons  was  essentially  aristocratic  in  composition  and  feeling. 

2  It  must  be  noted  that  religious  toleration  was  a  tendency  rather  than 
a  fact.  The  acts  of  the  first  freely  elected  parliament  of  the  Restoration 
show  how  intolerant  the  majority  of  the  English  people  still  were ;  while 
James  was  driven  from  the  throne  quite  as  much  on  account  of  his  atti- 
tude toward  papists,  as  on  account  of  his  arbitrary  government. 


134  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Subjects  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  The  political 

crimes  of  the  eighteenth  century.  Was  the  Navigation  Act  a  per- 
manent advantage  to  England?  (Debate.)  Why  should  the  Baltic 
be  a  cause  of  war  ?  The  mediaeval  causes  for  the  weakness  of  Italy 
during  this  age.  Views  of  a  peasant  in  the  Palatinate  on  the  policy 
of  Lewis  XIV.  Views  of  a  French  peasant  on  the  same  subject. 
Relation  of  colonial  affairs  to  international  European  wars.  Review 
of  the  growth  of  Brandenburg  into  the  kingdom  of  Prussia. ^  Imagin- 
ary dialogue  between  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria  on  the  partition 
of  Poland.     Value  of  Constantinople  to  Russia. 


I.  Ab.   Special  Study  of  the  **  Old  Hegitne "  in  France 
{Eighteenth  Century  Type). 

The  results  of  this  study  may  be  embodied  in  some  such 
summar}'  as  the  following  :  — 

"OLD  REGIME"  IN  FRANCE  (EIGHTEENTH  CENTURY). 

Organization,  Absolute  Feudal  Monarchy  (compare  later  Roman 
Empire  and  Oriental  despotisms). 
Supported  by 

the  favor  of  its  privileged  classes,  — 
officers  of  army  and  state,  ) 
the  officials  of  the  church,  v  opposed  to  reform, 
an  hereditary  nobility,        } 
the  revenue  from 
feudal  dues, 
arbitrary  taxes. 

the  sale  of  offices,  privileges,  and  titl«s. 
borrowed  money, 
a  standing  army. 
Producing,  or  marked, 

in  administration,  by 
confusion, 
injustice  and  inequality. 

*  Similar  subjects  may  be  given  in  connection  with  the  growths  of  Savoy 
and  Austria. 


MODERN  EUROPE.  135 

strong  centralization, 
corruption  and  favoritism, 
official  neglect  and  idleness, 
attempts  at  reform, ^ 
aiming  at 

equality 

of  taxation, 
of  opportunity, 
before  the  law. 
religious  toleration, 
legal  uniformity, 
freedom  of  trade, 
freedom  of  thought  and  speech, 
economy  at  court, 
failing,  through 

selfish  interests  of  privileged  classes, 
arbitrary  laws,  taxes,  etc. 
repression  of 

free  speech  and 
a  free  press, 
neglect  of  local  interests,  — 
roads, 
schools, 
churches,  etc. 
in  finance,  by 

extravagance,   insufficient    revenue    to   meet  ex- 
penses ;2  .-. 
debt,  dishonesty, 
in  law,  by 

venality  (buying  and  selling  of  office,  and  of  jus- 
tice itself), 
unequal  punishments,  based  on  class  distinction, 
barbarous  punishments, 
uncertain,  tardy,  and  varied  justice. 

1  Compare  these  attempted  reforms  with  modem  ideas,  and  with  the 
actual  changes  brought  about  in  France  by  the  Revolutionary  period. 

2  This  is  the  prime  difficulty  which  hampers  the  government,  but  gives 
to  France  her  one  effective  means  for  forcing  reform.  (Compare  England 
before  the  Civil  Wars.) 


136  STUDIES  IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

"  Old  Rkgime  "  in  France.  —  Continued. 
in  the  church,  by 

close  union  of  church  and  state ; 
intolerance, 
corruption,  simony, 
inequality,  based  on  class  distinctions. 
in  the  army,  by 

corruption. 

inequality  and  injustice  (class  distinctions), 
compulsory  and  oppressive  enlistment, 
no  chance  for  honorable  promotion, 
in  trade,  by 

government  interference, 
exclusive  guild  monopoly ;  .*. 
careless  work, 
high  prices, 
in  society,  by 

hereditary  status ;  .*. 
unequal  opportunity  for 
official  position, 
acquirement  of  wealth, 
acquirement  of  education, 
dependence  of  talent  on  royal  or  aristocratic  favor. 
The  Life  of  France. 
At  court, 

marked  by 

extravagance,  in  behalf  of  pleasure  and  pomp. 
immorality. 

neglect  of  state  interests, 
love  of  pleasure, 
supported  by 

bad  debts  to  the  bourgeoisie, 
oppressive  feudal  taxation, 
resulting  in 

the  formation  of  corrupt  and  mischievous  ideals,  — 
pleasure, 
idleness, 
splendor, 
careless  and  mischievous  administration, 
financial  embarrassment. 


MODERN   EUROPE.  137 

Among  the  bourgeoisie, 
marked  by- 
honesty. 

domestic  virtue. 

industry  and  intelligence. 

public  interest, 
resulting  in 

prosperity  and  comparative  wealth. 

disapproval  of  the  court. 

desire  for  government  reform.^ 

comparative  political  importance. 
Among  the  peasants, 
marked  by 

extreme  poverty. 

extreme  physical  misery. 

extreme  ignorance  and  superstition. 

oppressive  taxation  and  overwork. 

no  protection  for  property  or  labor. 

enforced  monopolies  (gahelle,  etc.). 
resulting  in 

inferior  development  of  French  resources, 

blind  dissatisfaction  and  unintelligent  revolt 

development  of  dangerous  classes, 

physical  degradation  of  peasant, 

desire  for  destruction  of  "  Old  Regime." 

Thought  and  Feeling. 

Of  the  supporters  of  royalty,  — 

belief  in  divine  origin  and  support  of  kings;  ••• 
feeling  that  disloyalty  is  irreligious, 
belief  in  arbitrary  right  of  the  king 

to  change  or  neglect  the  law. 

to  claim  and  use  the  property  of  the  realm.'^ 

^  The  bourgeoisie  would  try  to  reform  rather  than  destroy  the  "  Old 
Regime,"  since  violent  change  is  always  opposed  to  the  interests  of  trade ; 
while  to  the  peasant,  revolution  could  only  mean  change  for  the  better. 

2  These  beliefs  in  regard  to  the  king  had  their  historic  reason.  The 
idea  of  his  "  divine  right "  arose  partly  from  the  Scriptural  presentation 
of  Hebrew  royalty,  and  partly  from  the  close  relations  of  the  heads  of 
church  and  state  during  the  Middle  Ages ;  his  relation  to  the  law  as  its 


,1 


138  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

"Old  Regime  "  in  France.  —  Continued. 
servility  and  dependence. 

fear  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  their  followers.^ 
sentimental  sympathy  for  the  poor.^ 
Of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  Helvetius,  and  their  followers,  — 
revolt  against  absolutism  of  king, 
admiration  of  English  thought  and  government, 
demand  for  free  thought  and  speech, 
demand  for  popular  power  to  change  laws, 
demand  for  equality  before  the  law. 
demand  for  equal  education  (opportunity), 
belief  in  common  right  to  the  land, 
belief  in  happiness  as  standard  of  morality,  ) 

belief  in  experience  as  only  source  of  knowledge,  i 
loss  of  any  fixed  standard  of  right-doing. 

A  thorough  understanding  of  the  ''  Old  Regime"  is  essential 
to  a  clear  understanding  of  the  Revolution,  which  was  by  no 
means  a  single  revolt  against  a  single  thing,  but  a  complex 
turmoil  arising  from  the  clash  of  strong  and  wealth}'  classes, 
of  inexperienced  thinkers,  of  ignorant  and  desperate  masses, 
against  an  ancient,  rigid  sj'stem,  which  had  spread  root  and 
branch  through  every  institution,  every  industry,  every  habit  of 
French  life.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  look  fairly  at  this 
system,  and  understand  just  its  relations  to  each  great  class  of 
society,  and  again,  to  examine  as  far  as  we  can  into  the  status 
of  each  of  these  classes,  in  order  that  we  may  understand  the 
elements  as  well  as  the  causes  of  the  inevitable  Revolution. 


source  and  chief  executive,  gave  rise  to  the  feeling  that  he  was  above  the 
law ;  while  the  whole  feudal  system  rested  on  the  theory  that  all  land- 
titles  derived  their  first  validity  from  royal  grants. 

1  No  fact  more  thoroughly  proves  the  influence  of  Voltaire  and  Rous- 
seau than  this  fear  practically  expressed  through  a  severe  censorship  of 
their  writings. 

'  That  this  sympathy  was  sentimental,  was  proved  fast  enough  by  the 
strenuous  opposition  made  by  the  upper  classes  to  the  genuinely  helpful 
reforms  proposed  by  Turgot  and  Necker. ' 


MODERN  EUROPE.  139 

For  the  Revolution  was  inevitable ;  the  king  could  no  longer 
force  money  from  the  third  estate  and  the  peasantry ;  long- 
wars,  and  the  fetters  imposed  on  industry  by  the  feudal  regime, 
had  exhausted  or  bound  fast  the  resources  of  France  ;  and  large 
masses  of  men,  even 'the  king  himself,  had  come  face  to  face 
with  the  primal  question,  "How  to  live?"  Aside  from  this, 
men  everywhere  found  themselves  hampered  and  embarrassed, 
if  not  absolutely  wronged,  b}-  an  unavoidable  subordination  to 
an  unwieldy  mediaeval  system.  There  is  no  more  striking 
example  in  all  history  of  the  power  of  an  organization  to  shape 
the  life  of  men  unfortunately  than  is  furnished  by  this  ' '  Old 
Regime  "  ;  the  nobles,  shut  out  by  law  or  custom  from  commer- 
cial and  professional  careers,  became  a  mass  of  idle,  pleasure- 
loving  landlords,  dependent  on  the  king  for  their  occupations 
and  honors  ;  the  peasants  necessaril}^  starved  and  deteriorated 
under  a  system  which  held  them  fast  to  the  land,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  demanded  a  disproportionate  share  of  taxes  and  of 
heavy  physical  toil ;  the  bourgeoisie,  m6re  healthfully  situated, 
free  merchants  of  the  towns  or  cities,  with  an  assured  market, 
were  the  soundest  men  of  France,  —  thoughtful,  industrious,  and 
somewhat  fitted  for  citizenship. 

Among  such  materials,  the  ideas  of  Voltaire  and  Rousseau 
might  well  be  feared  by  those  who  wished  to  uphold  the  ' '  Old 
Regime,"  since  in  their  pages  its  ver}^  foundations  were  attacked  ; 
according  to  them,  the  law,  the  land,  the  very  constitution,  were 
primarily  for  the  good  of  the  people,  and  should  be  under  their 
control.  That  law  and  government  should  emanate  from  popu- 
lar sources  is  an  idea  now  considered  fundamental,  but  in  the 
France  of  the  eighteenth  century  it  was  revolutionary,  although 
naturally  called  forth  by  the  abuses  of  an  absolute  and 
arbitrary  rule.  Rousseau  went  further,  and  affirmed  that 
the  land  should  belong  to  all  the  people,  a  demand  easy  to 
comprehend  when  we  remember  that  absolutism  had  abused  its 
power  here  also,  and  had  devoted  large  tracts  of  French  terri- 
tory to  the  purposes  of  idle  pleasure,  while  no  hard-working 
peasant  was  secure  in  its  use  or  possession. 


140  STXJDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Thought  was  indeed  the  most  dangerous  enem}'  of  the  '^  Old 
Regime  "  ;  its  financial  support,  and  the  mass  of  its  standing 
army,  were  drawn  from  classes  that  would  with  reason  desire 
thoroughly  to  change  or  destroy  it,  the  instant  that  their  eyes 
and  minds  were  opened  to  its  injustice,  awkwardness,  and 
weakness.  The  difficulties  in  their  way  were  meanwhile  great, 
—  the  powerful  landed  interests  of  the  clergy  and  the  nobles; 
their  own  ignorance  or  inexperience  ;  the  dangers  with  which 
revolution  always  threatens  property ;  the  practical  hindrances 
to  united  action  found  in  bad  and  uncertain  roads,  and  in  the 
natural  inertia  of  men  in  regard  to  great  and  general  affairs. 
That  in  spite  of  all,  the  Revolution  came,  proves  that  France 
had  a  vital  need  for  "'  Liberty^  Equality^  Fraternity'' ;  —  for  free- 
dom of  trade,  of  thought,  of  speech ;  for  equalit}'  before  the 
law  ;  for  equal  chances  to  learn  and  labor ;  for  a  truly  sympa- 
thetic fraternity  between  class  and  class.  The  whole  of  conti- 
nental Europe  was  full  of  misery,  but  France  saw  light ;  for 
in  England  and  America  the  day  had  dawned. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  Stupidities 
of  the  "Old  Regime."  Did  they  originate  in  stupidity?  Defend 
your  position .  Why  should  the  peasants  of  France  become  e/jra^rerf, 
rather  than  thoughtful,  under  the  "Old  Regime"?  Account  by  a 
common  French  soldier  of  his  experiences  in  the  army.  Reminis- 
cences of  an  "  Invalide."  What  were  the  "prospects  "  open  to  young 
Frenchmen  of  each  class  during  the  eighteenth  century  ?  Reflections 
of  Necker  on  the  usefulness  of  a  French  minister.  Why  should 
thoughtful  Frenchmen  admire  England?  Why  should  the  ideal 
prevalent  at  court  not  spoil  the  "Bourgeoisie"?  A  i)easant's  notion 
of  reform.     A  noble's.     A  merchant's. 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON.   141 


E.   II.   PKENOH  EEVOLUTION  AND  WAKS  OF  NAPOLEON, 
1789-1815. 

Each  of  the  studies,  1,2,  and  3,  should  be  summarized  and 
finished  before  passing  on  to  new  work.  The  following  tabula- 
tions may  prove  helpful :  — 

1.   FRENCH  REVOLUTION. 

Caused  by : 

Arbitrary  absolutism  of  "  Old  Regime ;  "  .  • . 

Oath  of  Tennis-court. 
A  standing  army  under  absolute  royal  control;  .•. 

formation  of  "  National  Guard." 
Feudal  oppressions  of  nobles;  .-. 

destruction  of  title-deeds. 
Instability  of  law  and  government ;  .  • . 

demand  for  a  signed   constitution   as   a  received  and 
understood  standard  of  government.^ 
Exemption  of  nobles  and  clergy  from  taxation  ;  .-. 

resignation  of  feudal  privilege  by  the  nobles. 

confiscation  of  church  property  to  state  use. 
Degradation  and  ignorance  of  lowest  classes;  .*. 

cruel  and  unintelligent  action  in  revolution. 
Suppression  of  free  thought  and  religious  intolerance;  .-. 

reaction  to  worship  of  "  Reason." 

Favored  by : 

Weakness  of  "  Old  Regime,"  seen  in 

inability  to  suppress  revolution  or  preserve  order, 
attempted  flight  of  king, 
"  emigration  "  of  nobles, 
sudden  completeness  of  its  fall. 

1  The  demands  of  this  first  constitution  show  what  wrongs  the  middle 
class  —  the  third  estate  —  had  most  keenly  felt ;  namely,  taxation  without 
representation,  arbitrary  and  uncertain  law,  and  the  exhaustion  of  French 
blood  and  treasure  in  foreign  wars,  waged  at  tlie  will  of  the  king. 


142  STUDIES  IN  GENEEAL  HISTORY. 

French  Revolution.  —  Continued. 

General  French  sympathy  i  with  the  Revolution,  strengthened  by 

attacks  of  foreign  powers. 

vacillation  and  weakness  of  king. 
Marked  by : 

(1)  Rapid  succession  of  constitutional  changes. 

(2)  Popular  suspicions  of  league  of  European  kings,  .*. 

determination  to  execute  Lewis  XVI.^ 
popular  energy  in  foreign  wars. 

(3)  Despotism  under  republican  forms,  Sept.,  1792  to  July,  1794, 

embodied  in 

Parisian  clubs  and  committees, 
demagogic  autocrats  (Robespierre), 
proving  its  nature  by 

arbitrary  imprisonment  and  massacre. 
"  Reign  of  Terror." 
imposition  of  revolutionary  worships, 
supported  by 

terrorism,  — 

imprisonment, 
assassination. 

condemnation  without  trial, 
mob  violence. 

(4)  Reaction  against  mob-rule,  and  gradual  restoration  of  order, 

embodied  in 

Directory. 

constitution  of  year  VIII.,  Napoleonic  rule, 
supported  by 

national  forces,  led  by 

Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

(5)  Foreign  conqu^t,  accompanied  by 

(6)  Proclamation  of  republican  principles,  and 
Enforcement  of  republican  constitutions  in  conquered  territory. 

1  Had  the  body  of  the  people  been  attached  to  the  "  Old  Re'girae,"  of 
course  it  could  not  finally  have  been  overthrown,  since  perhaps  even  the 
peasants  would  have  made  a  good  defence,  judging  from  their  energy  in 
the  Vendean  War. 

2  The  whole  government  of  the  "  Old  Regime  "  had  been  so  absolutely- 
centralized  in  the  person  of  the  monarch,  that  to  the  peasants  and  the 
populace,  at  least,  the  execution  of  the  king  would  mean  the  fall  of  the 
whole  system. 


PREKCH  REVOLUTION  AND  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON.      143 

Results  of  Revolution. 

Military  autocracy  of  Napoleon.^ 
Uniform  system  of  published  law  (Code  Napoleon). 
A  published  constitution,  open  to  popular  criticism. 
Established  recognition  of  the  representative  principle. 
Destruction  of  feudalism ;  .-. 

equality  before  the  law. 

uniform  system  of  taxation  substituted  for  feudal  dues. 
Formation  of  a  national  army. 
Development  of  French  patriotism,  through 

common  sufferings  and  achievements. 

foreign  attack,  and 

Napoleon's  victories. 

Although  the  "  Old  Regime  "  apparently  fell  at  a  blow  before 
the  first  attack  of  vigorous  revolution,  we  must  still  remember 
with  Taine,  that  its  spiritual  forces,  its  habits  of  thought  and 
action,  were  powerful  factors  throughout  the  Revolutionary  age  ; 
perhaps  indeed  the}"  still  possess  a  governing  force  in  France. 
America  was  too  recent  and  distant  an  experiment  to  have  any 
practical  lessons  to  teach,  while  English  kings  still  managed 
by  various  forms  of  bribery  and  trickery  to  govern  more  in 
sympathy  with  the  old  than  with  the  coming  political  system 
of  Europe.  France  herself  only  knew  by  experience  one  way 
of  government,  the  way  of  centralized  despotism,  and  throughout 
her  attempts  at  political  liberty,  this  political  habit  clung.  The 
most  ardent  defenders  of  the  *'  Rights  of  Man,"  when  they 
obtained  the  power  and  responsibilit}'  of  government,  could  not 
see  their  way  clear  to  solve  the  problem  of  securing  order  at 
home  and  victory  abroad,  without  recourse  to  force,  and  the 
representative  machine  was  far  too  imperfect  and  ill-adjusted 
to  work  out  desirable  results,  especially  in  a  period  so  full 
of  rapid  and  critical  dangers.  Taine  has  clearly  shown  that 
the  despotisms  of  the  "Old  Regime"  were  to  blame  for  the 
despotisms  of  the  Revolution ;   but  perhaps  he  does  not  suffl- 

1  The  comparison  between  Cromwell  and  Napoleon  is  a  natural  and  strik- 
ing one;  but  it  applies  rather  to  their  circumstances  than  their  characters, 


144  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

ciently  emphasize  the  '•''dire  necessity^''  which  day  after  day 
forced  on  bold  but  inexperienced  men  to  some  sort  of  great 
and  decisive  action,  involving  the  movements  of  troops,  the 
wholesale  judgments  of  courts,  the  suppression  of  disturbance, 
the  defence  of  legislative  bodies,  the  conclusion  of  treaties. 
Even  a  modern  state,  with  a  smoothly  working  representative 
system,  with  railway  and  telegraph  and  newspaper  at  com- 
mand, in  such  a  time  of  foreign  and  domestic  stress,  would  find 
itself  urged  to  some  form  of  easily  and  rapidly  acting  autocracy. 
It  is  beyond  all  doubt  that  France  could  not  change  in  less  than 
a  generation,  if,  indeed,  so  quickly,  from  the  "  Old  Regime  "  to 
a  genuine  republic  of  any  sort.  How  badly  even  the  most 
advanced  republicans  understood  the  spirit  the}'  had  evoked 
was  shown  by  the  enforcement  of  republican  forms  and  names 
upon  countries  prepared  neither  to  understand  nor  be  grateful 
for  them.  Under  these  conditions,  it  was  fortunate  for  France 
that  the  Directory,  driven  for  self-preservation  to  the  protec- 
tion of  Napoleon,  found  in  him  a  master  for  itself  and  France ; 
a  master  of  sufficient  genius  to  hold  France  firm  to  the  acknowl- 
edged principles  of  the  Revolution  ;  a  master  who  knew  how 
to  give  France  law  and  order  and  peace  under  the  new  forms 
which  she  herself  could  not  yet  use  ;  and  a  master  representative 
in  his  own  person  of  popular  government. 

The  constitution  of  the  year  VIII.  diifered  vastly  from  the 
"  Old  Regime,"  in  that  it  recognized  the  people  as  a  part  of  the 
government  of  France,  and  brought  the  whole  country  under  a 
uniform  standard  of  law.  Although  in  France,  as  in  England, 
revolution  did  not  at  once  change  the  reality  of  various  politi- 
cal relations,  yet  it  gave  men  new  forms  and  new  tools,  better 
fitted  to  the  spirit  and  tendency  of  the  age.  Little  bv  little  the 
new  forms  were  to  become  inspired  with  the  breath  of  i)opular 
life,  and  little  by  little  the  new  tools  were  to  gain  edge  and 
temper  and  strength,  as  the  awkward  grasp  of  the  people 
became  surer  and  finer. 

The  Revolution  is  even  more  striking  from  the  social  than 
the  political  standpoint ;  and  its  political  results  may  almost  be 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON.   145 

regarded  as  a  necessary  outcome  of  its  social  changes.  Its 
essential  fact  was,  that  it  overthrew  feudalism,  or  a  society 
based  on  hereditary  status,  and  gave  to  France  instead  a  nation 
of  citizens  and  a  society  based  upon  equal  relationship  to  a 
common  soil. 


2.   THE   NAPOLEONIC   RULE. 

Developed  by : 

Necessities  of  France  for 
domestic  peace, 
foreign  victory. 
Military  genius  of  Napoleon. 
Supported  by : 

Patriotism  of  France,  and 

Loyalty  of  armies  to  Napoleon. 

Napoleonic  recognition  of  republican  principles  and  forms.i 

Resulting  in : 

Recovery  of  Rhine  frontier  for  France,     (Compare  with  boun- 
dary of  ancient  Gaul.) 

Growth    of   Napoleonic    Empire.     (Compare  with   Empire  of 
Charlemagne.) 

Fall  of  "  Holy  Roman  Empire."  ^ 

European  opposition  to  Napoleon  ^  and  revolutionary  principles, 
caused  by 

fear  of  his  military  genius. 

1  Note  Napoleon's  recognition  of  the  principle  of  manhood  suffrage  in 
his  own  elevation;  but  in  his  arbitrary  disposal  of  the  various  parts  of  his 
empire,  he  followed  the  spirit  and  example  of  the  "  Old  Regime." 

2  In  order  to  call  attention  to  this  rather  uninfluential  event,  the  teacher 
should  remind  the  class  that  it  was  the  title  of  Augustus  Caesar,  which 
came  to  its  end  in  1806 ;  and  that  from  this  Holy  Roman  Empire  have 
been  formed  Italy,  Germany,  Austria,  Poland,  Holland^  Belgium,  and 
Switzerland. 

^  It  is  interesting  to  note  how  neighborly  jealousies  sometimes  over- 
came the  common  fear  of  Napoleon,  as  when  Austria  and  Prussia  joined 
him  against  Russia.  In  the  early  part  of  the  Revolution,  also,  France 
was  often  indebted  to  various  European  jealousies  or  rival  ambitions. 


146  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

The  Napoleonic  Rule.  —  Continued. 

spread  of    the    republican    principles  which  he 

claimed  to  person  if  y.^ 
fall  of  Napoleon. 

national    reactions   against   foreign   influence  or 
rule,  in 
Spain. 
Russia. 
Prussia, 
resulting  in 

readjustment  of  Europe  at  Congress  of  Vienna. 

The  Congress  of  Vienna  proved  itself  the  representative  of  the 
''  Old  Regime,"  not  only  by  its  restorations  of  old  dynasties, 
but  by  its  arbitrary  disposal  of  pAiropean  lands  and  peoples. 


3.    PRUSSIAN   REVOLUTION. 


Developed  by :  \ 

Necessity  of  Prussia  for 

forces         ^ 

funds  >  to  cope  with  Napoleon. 

patriotism  ) 
Failure  of  "  Old  Regime  "  to  meet  this  necessity,  because  of 

inequality  and  inadequacy  of  taxation. 

entire  separation  of  people  and  government. 

fixed  nature  of  occupations;^  .*. 

loss  of  free  energy. 

fixed  tenure  and  status  of  land;  .-. 

inadequate  development  of  Prussian  resources. 

popular  sympathy  with  French  Revolution. 
Genius  of  Stein  and  his  associates. 

1  The  formation  of  the  "Holy  Alliance"  proves  how  thoroughly  the 
monarchs  of  Europe  realized  that  Napoleon  was  not  their  iinal  foe,  but 
rather  the  ideas  which  he  liad  nominally  represented. 

2  For  the  historic  origin  of  the  three  classes  of  Prussia,  with  their  corre- 
sponding occupations,  see  "  Studies,"  p.  226. 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON.   147 


Resulting  in 

Formation  of  a  national  army, 

Abolition  of  serfdom, 

Free  trade  in  land,  y 


Reforms  of  Stein,  Scharn- 

horst,  and  their  associ- 

-^         ,    .        ™  ^-      ^    i>         I        ^-t^s.       Compare     with 

Free  choice  oi  occupation  to  rrus-  rp    ,     . 

sian  citizens,  j 

Nationalization  of  Prussia;  .-. 
Growth  of  patriotism,  developed  by- 
reform  of  the  state, 
example  of  Spain. i 
agitation  of  secret  societies, 
active  efforts  of  enthusiastic  patriots,  — 
Arndt,  poet. 
Jahn,  gymnast.2 
Fichte,  philosopher, 
statesmanship  of  Stein. 
War  of  Liberation. 
Recognition  of  constitutional  jirinciples.^ 

The  French  and  the  Prussian  Revolutions  were  caused  by 
similar  needs,  and  effected  similar  ends  ;  both  were  forced  on  by 
the  demand  of  the  government  for  money,  which  an  exhausted 
land  could  by  no  means  yield,  and  for  popular  sympathies, 
which  an  oppressed  peasantry  and  a  neglected  middle  class 
could  by  no  means  give  ;  and  both  ended  in  most  radical  change, 
—  in  the  destruction  of  the  rigid  feudal  state,  with  its  classes, 
lands,  and  occupations,  fixed  by  distinctions  of  birth,  and  in 

1  From  the  extract  given  on  p.  488,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  national 
movement  in  Spain  was  greatly  intensified  by  a  spirit  of  religious  zeal 
against  the  "  heretic." 

2  Although  there  is  a  touch  of  romance  about  the  attractive  figure  of 
Jahn,  his  idea  was  nevertheless  far  more  practical  than  one  at  first  might 
think ;  the  splendidly  trained  peoples  of  antiquity  show  what  the  physi- 
cal culture  of  the  individual  may  accomplish  for  the  race ;  while  in  the 
Prussian  army  we  have  the  modern  application  of  the  same  principle. 

^  These,  however,  did  not  begin  to  work  so  quickly  in  Germany  as  in 
France ;  but  the  seed  was  planted ;  and  its  life  was  in  it,  "  after  its  kind," 
from  tjie  day  that  Stein  called  together  again  the  old  mediaeval  estates, 
which  were  in  their  spirit  and  origin  popular  assemblies. 


148  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

the  erection  instead  of  the  mobile  modern  state,  with  its  free 
citizens,  lands,  and  trades.  But  while  the  French  Revolution 
was  precipitated  upon  an  unprepared,  inert,  and  helpless  gov- 
ernment which  must  needs  fall  before  its  onset,  the  Prussian 
Revolution  was  the  result  of  strong  and  simple  statesmanship, 
whose  measures  were  carried  out  by  government  itself,  and 
carried  out  so  peacefully  that  men  were  scared}-  aware  that 
Prussia  as  well  as  France  and  England  had  entered  the  world 
of  modern  states.  The  revolution  was  the  less  marked  because 
the  fundamental  change  was  social,  as  in  France  ;  and  here  it 
was  unaccompanied  by  any  agitation  for  those  political  changes 
with  which  France  had  terrified  Europe.  For  the  time  being, 
Prussia  felt  no  need  of  such  political  change.  The  Prussian 
monarchs  had  attended  to  the  duties  of  their  office  and  the 
interests  of  their  people  far  better  than  the  kings  of  France ; 
the  changes  of  Stein  and  his  associates  met  the  need  of  the 
hour ;  the  freeing  of  serfs  and  the  reform  of  the  army  gave 
Prussia  at  once  a  free  citizen  army,  enlivened  throughout  by 
the  breath  of  hopeful  emulation ;  free  trade  in  land  rendered 
every  acre  available  to  capital ;  and  free  choice  of  occupation 
allowed  every  man  to  serve  the  state  according  to  his  best  or 
favorite  capacit}' ;  thus  the  Prussian  resources  began  to  gather 
force  and  volume  from  farm  and  shop  and  counter ;  and  the 
free  citizens  became  better  and  better  able  to  bear  the  burdens 
of  taxation.  Meanwhile,  all  these  reforms  made  Prussia  a 
country  to  be  loved,  so  that  the  revolution  at  home,  and 
admiration  for  Stein,  began  to  neutralize  the  effects  of  the 
Revolution  in  France  and  admiration  for  Napoleon. 

From  the  day  that  Stein  noticed  the  power  of  the  Spanish 
revolt,  he  regarded  the  passion  of  patriotism,  the  sentiment  of 
nationality,  as  the  mightiest  foe  that  could  be  evoked  against 
Napoleon  ;  hence  his  eagerness  to  spread  the  news  of  it,  and  to 
rouse  the  national  pride  to  enthusiasm  by  poetry  and  stirring  ex- 
ample. That  Napoleon  entirely  agreed  with  Stein's  opinion,  is 
easily  inferred  from  his  demand  for  Stein's  dismissal ;  that  Stein 
was  wholly  right  was  proved  by  the  event.    Even  in  Yorck,  the 


FRENCH  REVOLUTION  AND  WARS  OF  NAPOLEON.      149 

brave  old  general,  the  love  of  his  land  overcame  his  life-long 
habit  of  military  obedience. 

I  cannot  forbear  adding  that  the  development  of  Prussian 
nationality  is  a  most  significant  lesson  as  to  the  wide  popular 
effects  which  the  conscious  purpose  and  action  of  a  few  united 
and  devoted  patriots  may  achieve. 

Suggestions  for  Essay  and  Examination  Work.  —  Does  the 
Revolution  show  the  French  people  to  have  been  eager  or  slow  in 
regard  to  political  change?  Why  is  a  "national  guard"  the  most 
effective  national  defence,  other  things  being  equal  ?  How  did  it  hap- 
pen that  France,  during  the  Revolutionary  period,  was  so  well  able  to 
meet  foreign  invasion?  How  was  the  "Old  Regime"  to  blame  for 
the  excesses  of  the  Revolution  ?  The  inconsistencies  of  Robespierre. 
Journal  of  an  "  Emigrant."  Letters  of  a  Norman  noble,  present  in 
the  national  assembly  from  its  opening  to  Aug.  5,  1789.  Letters  of  a 
Lyons  merchant  present  during  the  same  period.  IMob-rule  v.  the 
"  Old  Regime."  Reflections  of  a  Roman  citizen  on  the  French  procla- 
mation of  a  Roman  republic.  Same  of  a  Venetian  aristocrat  on  the 
proclamation  of  a  Venetian  republic.  What  are  the  uses  of  a  writ- 
,ten  constitution? 

The  working  of  the  "  Balance  of  Power"  system  during  the  Napo- 
leonic era.  Napoleon  and  Charlemagne.  What  popular  ideals  and 
desires  did  Napoleon  personify  or  accomplish?  What  old  historic 
idea  appears  in  the  phrase  "Holy  Alliance"?  How  far  have  the 
arrangements  of  the  Congress  of  Vienna  remained  permanent? 

What  does  the  history  of  the  Prussian  Revolution  show  as  to  the 
value  of  personal  effort  for  a  great  political  object?  What  would 
have  been  the  opinion  of  practical,  common-sense  men  as  to  the 
advisability  of  Prussia's  making  any  attempt  to  resist  Napoleon  after 
the  Treaty  of  Tilsit?  How  did  the  reforms  of  Stein  increase  happi- 
ness? Energy?  Napoleon  v.  Stein.  Value  of  secret  societies  as 
instruments  of  agitation.     (Debate.) 


150  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 


E.  III.    THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY. 

On  page  491,  a  blank  space  is  left  after  ''chief  contemix)- 
rary  and  original  sources,"  in  order  that  the  teacher  may  have 
an  opportunity  to  test  the  pupil's  power  to  recognize  the  true 
sources  of  historical  knowledge  when  he  sees  them.  If  he  has 
noted  these  sources  as  they  have  been  indicated  throughout  the 
work,  he  will  now  be  ready  to  see  that  the  contemporary  world 
is  full  of  the  original  "raw  material"  of  nineteenth  century 
history ;  that  it  is  appearing  in  newspapers,  in  new  laws, 
in  contemporarj'  literature  and  art,  in  declarations  of  war  and 
treaties  of  peace,  in  statistics,  in  investigations  and  inventions, 
in  amusements  and  manners  ;  and,  above  all,  in  the  organizations 
into  which  men  are  crowding  the  forces  of  numbers  and  knowl- 
edge, or  from  which  they  are  silently  withdrawing  these  forces. 
If  the  class  be  sufficiently  mature,  there  is  no  better  place  than 
this  to  enter  upon  some  discussion  of  the  comparative  value  of 
historic  materials,  and  to  note  the  tests  by  which  this  or  that 
should  be  rejected  as  useless.  But  even  with  the  most  mature 
pupils  that  are  likely  to  use  this  book,  it  may  not  be  well  to 
enter  further  into  the  matter  than  to  note,  that  in  all  the  mass 
of  actions,  facts,  opinions,  and  objects,  which  enter  into  the  lives 
of  men,  some  enter  so  widely  into  the  lives  of  the  generality  so 
as  to  become  positive  forms  or  forces  in  society,  and  so  rise  to 
be  of  general  typical  historic  value  ;  and  while  the  student  should 
respect  every  action,  fact,  opinion,  and  object  as  significant, 
he  should  be  led  to  feel  a  sense  of  proportion  in  regard  to  their 
relative  value. 

The  "  Studies"  on  1  and  2  may  be  summarized  somewhat  as 
follows :  — 


THE   N^INETEENTH  CENTURY.  151 


NINETEENTH  CENTURY. 

Political  Organizations. 

^monarchical  (England). 

Constitutional  governments,  ■<  republican  (America,  France). 

(imperial  (Germany), 
composed  of 

an  executive  head,  — 

non-representative  and  irresponsible  (Ex. : 

English  monarch). 

representative  and  responsible  (Exs. :  prime 

minister,  president) . 

legislative  chambers,  — 

upper  house : 

hereditary,  elected,  or  appointed. 

lower  house : 

elected,  more  popular  than  upper. 

courts  of  justice. 

a  democratic  body  of  citizens,  bound  together  by 

common  interests  in 

government. 

law. 

defence  and  commerce. 

education. 

religion. 

common  residence  on  national  soil. 

based  upon  popular  approval. 

characterized  by 

majority  rule. 

universal  suffrage,  or  strong  tendency  toward  it. 

systems  of  checks. 

legal  and  political  equality  of  citizens. 

publicity  of  measures. 

representative  system,  applied  to 

magistrates  (Ex.:  English  premier). 

assemblies  (Ex.:  Reichstag). 

citizen-armies. 

aided  or  rendered  possible  by 

railroads,  telegraphs,  steamships,  etc. 

newspapers,  public  education. 

public  spirit  and  interest  of  citizens. 


152  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Nineteenth  Century.  —  Continued. 

The  nation-state,  bound  together  by  ties  of 
common  race  and  speech, 
common  religion, 
common  government  and  interests. 

Exs. :  Italy,  Germany,  France,  Russia. 
Imperial,  colonial  union  (England), 
composed  of 

Europeans,  and 
undeveloped  or  native  races, 
developed  through 

commercial  interests, 
modern  means  of  communication. 
European  congresses,  conferences,  etc., 
tending  to 

unify  Europe. 

substitute  arbitration  for  war. 
protect  weak  states, 
preserve  the  "  Balance  of  Power." 
Political  parties,  embodying 

public  opinion  in  working  organizations  of  citizens. 
Secret  societies, 

agitating  for 

national  independence  (Germany,  Italy,  Greece). 
changes  in  government,  —  » 

constitutional  (Germany,  Italy), 
communistic  or  socialistic   (France,    Ger- 
many), 
anarchic  (Russia). 

Other  Organizations. 

The  free  church  in  the  free  state  (America). 
Combinations  of  labor,  — 

trades-unions. 

secret  societies. 

international  unions. 

co-operative  unions  (Ex. :  building  associations). 

political  parties  (German  socialists). 
Public  schools. 
Citizen-armies. 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTUEY.  153 

Voluntary  societies  for 

management  of  charities, 
agitation  of  reforms, 
'pursuit  of  learning,  etc.,  etc. 

Great  corporations  for  carrying  on  business  enterprises  (bank- 
ing, manufacturing,  transportation,  telegraphy,  etc.,  etc.). 

G-reat  Movements  and  Tendencies  of  Age. 

r  Asia  (England,  Russia). 
Europeanization     of    other  J  Africa  (England,  France), 
continents,  (  Australia  (England), 

in  interests  of 

commerce. 
Christianity. 
Development  of  nationalities, 
completed  in 

Germany,  Italy, 
Greece,  Holland,  Belgium, 
agitated  for  in 

Hungary,  Poland,  Ireland, 
proceeding  in 
America. 
Formation  of  popular  constitutional  governments  in 
France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Austria,  Spain,  etc. 
European  wars,i 

in  behalf  of 

nationality. 
"Balance  of  Power." 
colonial  interests, 
resulting  in 

formation  of  national  units, 
constant  checking  of  greater  powers.'^ 
arbitrary  disposal  of  weaker  peoples    (in  some 
cases). 

^  Perhaps  no  one  war  outranks  in  importance  the  Franco-Prussian, 
which  at  one  blow  made  France  a  republic,  completed  the  independence 
and  freedom  of  Italy,  and  bound  the  states  of  Germany  into  imperial 
union. 

2  Notably  Russia ;  on  whom  Europe  has  long  kept  constant  watch. 


154  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

Nineteenth  Century.  —  Continued. 

Abolition  of  slavery  and  serfdom  (England,*  Russia,  Prussia, 

America). 
Socialism, 

embodied  in 

political  parties, 
secret  societies, 
aiming  at^ 

state  ownership  of  means  of  labor, 
more  equitable  distribution  of  profits  of  labor, 
greater  leisure  and  culture  for  laboring  classes, 
reorganization  of  states  in  the  interests  of  labor. 

Characteristics  of  Age. 

Democracy. 
Individual  freedom  of 

occupation,  labor,  movement, 
residence. 

speech  and  thought. 
Appearance  of  lowest  classes  as 

members  of  society  (through  abolition  of  slavery  and 

serfdom), 
members  of  the  state  (through  universal  suffrage,  citi- 
zen-armies, and  public  schools). 
Industrial  development, 
favored  by 

new  means  of  transportation  and  communication 

(railway,  telegraph,  steamship), 
introduction  of  machinery, 
opening  of  Oriental  markets, 
development  of  new  lands. 
Scientific  investigation. 
General  diffusion  of  intelligence,  comfort,  and  freedom. 

1  In  England  the  slave-owners  were  paid  for  their  property  by  the  state ; 
in  America,  through  the  pressure  of  circumstance,  this  property  was  re- 
garded as  "  contraband  of  war." 

2  I  have  purposely  stated  these  aims  in  tlie  most  general  terms,  since 
the  name  of  socialist  covers  so  many  theories  and  desires.  A  more  defi- 
nite list  miglit  be  made  for  class-work  by  paraphrasing  the  demands  made 
on  pp.  637,  638. 


THE  NINETEENTH   CENTURY.  155 

Strained  relations  of  church  and  state. 
Religious  toleration,  seen  in 

Christian  and  JVIohammedan  equality  in  Turkey. 

repeal  of  corporation  and  test  acts  in  England. 

Catholic  relief  act  in  England. 

disestablishment  of  Irish  ' '  church." 
Cosmopolitanism,  or  diffusion  of  common  thought  and  knowledge 

of  agricultural,  commercial,  and  mechanical  resources. 
Increasing  number  and  power  of  social  organizations. 

The  British  constitution  is  a  government  machine  worked  by 
the  people.  The  powers  of  the  monarch  are  so  hedged  about 
by  those  of  the  premier  and  the  commons,  the  premier  is  so  de- 
pendent on  the  following  of  the  commons,  the  latter  are  so  readily 
displaced  by  the  popular  vote,  and  this  again  is  so  easily  led  by 
argument  or  personal  influence,  that  no  part  of  the  government 
can  long  act  in  a  way  which  people  in  general  regard  as  foolish 
or  wicked  without  experiencing  a  change  of  heart  or  a  fall. 
Although  in  its  essential  spirit  democratic,  yet  the  British  con- 
stitution is  more  picturesque  than  the  plainer  and  severer  forms 
of  France  and  America,  since  its  legislative  assemblies  find 
their  title  and  origin  in  the  mediaeval  assemblies  of  estates, 
while  the  monarch  and  the  court  preserve  the  memories  of  the 
"Old  Regime."  Of  these  historic  forms,  the  House  of  Lords 
and  the  king  appear  unnecessary  to  an  American  eye,  since 
the  real  work  of  government  is  carried  on  by  the  more  distinctly 
modern  and  representative  parts  of  the  constitution,  the  prime 
minister  and  the  House  of  Commons.  Although  the  House  of 
Commons  is  a  representative  body  in  theory,  and  largely  so  in 
fact,  it  can  never  be  the  thorough  tool  of  the  democracy  until 
its  members  are  paid  for  their  services,  thus  allowing  the 
trading  and  laboring  classes  to  send  personal  representatives. 
This  imperfection,  however,  is  partly  counterbalanced  by  the 
superior  independence  of  men,  whose  living  does  not  depend  on 
their  expressed  political  opinions.  The  central  figure  of  the 
government  is,  of  course,  the  prime  minister ;  he  embodies 
popular  will  and  trust ;   he  is  the  responsible  executive  of  the 


156  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

nation ;  and  so  thoroughly  is  his  power  felt  to  be  the  leading 
one,  that  in  common  speech  the  prime  minister  and  his  fol- 
lowers are  called  ''the  government." 

Nothing  more  strikingly  illustrates  the  great  change  that  has 
passed  over  France  within  the  century  than  to  compare  her 
present  constitution  with  that  of  the  "Old  Regime"  ;  heredi- 
tary distinctions  in  society  have  vanished  ;  the  whole  people 
share  in  the  government ;  the  church  has  ceased  to  be  a  dis- 
tincti\e  part  of  the  state.  France  indeed  has. become  a  more 
thoroughly  modern  state  than  her  leader,  England,  since  every 
part  of  her  government  is  directly  representative  of  the  will  of 
the  majorit}^  of  her  citizens,  and  since  her  citizens  include  all 
eligible  Frenchmen  at  home,  or  in  the  colonies.  By  this  last 
inclusion,  France  has  succeeded  in  binding  her  colonies  to  her- 
self in  organic  union,  and  thus  in  forming  a  genuine  "  Greater 
France." 

Germany  differs  from  England  and  France  in  that  it  is  a 
complex  of  historic  states,  where  the  problem  of  representation 
has  been  more  difficult,  because  not  only  citizens  but  govern- 
ments must  be  represented.  These  governments,  too,  differ 
widely  in  spirit,  form,  history,  and  power ;  while  one  of  them, 
the  Prussian,  maintains  among  the  others  a  leadership  almost 
amounting  to  autocracy.  But  the  elastic  fitness  of  the  English 
constitution  to  modern  political  needs  receives  no  better  illus- 
tration than  the  fact  that  it  has  been  made  the  successful  work- 
ing basis  for  the  governments  of  two  states  so  widely  different 
as  German)'  and  France,  —  the  former  the  home  of  particu- 
larism, the  latter  thoroughly  stamped  with  centralization. 

Not  only  the  principles  but  the  forms  of  these  modern  con- 
stitutions run  parallel.  To  the  king  corresponds  the  emperor 
and  the  president ;  the  latter,  however,  adds  to  his  power  the 
responsibility  of  a  prime  minister.  This  responsibility  and  a 
limited  term  of  office  give  him  checks  felt  neither  by  king  nor 
emperor.  With  the  premier  ranks  the  chancellor ;  the  House 
of  Lords  is  copied  by  the  French  Senate  and  the  German 
Bundesrath ;   while  the  purely  nineteenth  century  parts  of  the 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  157 

constitution,  the  lower  houses  and  the  citizen  body,  are  very 
nearly  alike. 

The  modern  state  thus  stands  before  us,  the  complete,  ad- 
justable organ  of  popular  will.  It  has  secured  itself  against 
domestic  tyranny  b}^  a  cunning  system  of  constant  and  bal- 
anced checks ;  against  foreign  invasion  hy  citizen-armies  and 
a  central  responsible  chief.  It  embodies  within  itself  the 
representative  principle  discovered  b}'  the  towns  in  the  feudal 
age,  and  the  equal  citizenship  of  the  classic  republics  ;  but  it 
has  learned  to  combine  the  two,  so  that  its  popular  assemblies 
are  neither  confined  to  the  representation  of  a  single  city  as  in 
antiquity,  nor  to  the  representation  of  separate  hereditary 
classes  as  in  the  mediaeval  age.  The  newspaper  and  the  tele- 
graph serve  the  purpose  of  the  crowded  "  market-place,"  and 
enable  a  widely  scattered  population  to  learn,  discuss,  and 
judge  at  the  same  hour  the  events  of  each  passing  day,  thus 
binding  areas  of  thousands  of  miles  into  an  intelligent,  sympa- 
thetic, political  unit.  Thus  for  the  state,  space  is  destroyed ; 
and  the  practical  difficulty  felt  by  antiquity  of  forming  a  suc- 
cessful republic  larger  than  the  area  of  a  single  city,  has  disap- 
peared. Nevertheless,  in  the  modern  as  in  the  ancient  state, 
' '  Persuasion "  is  the  goddess  who  grants  political  power ;  a 
power  no  man  can  keep  unless  he  keep  as  well  the  approval  of 
the  majority  of  his  fellow-citizens.  Our  armies,  again,  are  of  a 
new  type.  The  mercenaries  who  played  so  important  a  part  in 
antiquity,  the  mediaeval  warrior-bands  of  vassals,  following 
their  knightly  landlords,  are  alike  displaced  by  citizen-armies, 
regularly  trained  and  paid  to  serve  their  whole  country  and  their 
own  country. 

In  noting  the  other  features  of  organized  social  life  in  our 
own  century,  we  are  struck  b}'  the  endless  number  of  organiza- 
tions, and  by  the  fact  that  they  are  almost  without  excep- 
tion formed  in  the  interests  of  genuine  progress,  and  that  a 
progress  toward  the  higher,  freer,  more  spiritual  life  of  man. 
Many  of  them  are  absolutely  new ;  others  bear  some  resem- 
blance to  older  forms ;  thus,  the  trades-union  recalls  the  guild, 


168  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

the  colonial  empire  of  England  has  points  of  resemblance  with 
the  empire  of  Rome.  But  the  resemblances  are  superficial ;  the 
time  is  great  and  original,  and  gives  its  own  peculiar  stamp  to 
all  its  living  forms. 


The  constitutional  state  is  distinctly  of  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury ;  the  nation-states  appeared  with  the  opening  of  the 
Renaissance,  but  our  own  century  has  notably  increased  their 
number,  strengthened  the  spirit  of  nationality  and  the  con- 
sciousness of  race-relationships.  Thus  in  the  modern  as  the 
ancient  state  appears  the  strong  kinship  bond  with  a  common 
fatherland  or  mother-country  as  a  common  ancestor.  The 
strong  tendency  toward  the  formation  of  these  national  units  is 
seen  in  the  almost  constant  agitation,  which  desires  for  nation- 
alization have  produced  in  one  or  another  part  of  Europe. 
This  desire  has  divided  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  since  its  final 
fall  into  its  true  component  parts,  —  a  Protestant,  Dutch- 
speaking  Holland ;  a  Catholic,  French-speaking  Belgium ;  a 
Catholic  Italy  ;  a  union  of  the  old  German-born  and  German- 
speaking  tribes  into  a  Teutonic  empire ;  with  this  desire, 
Hungary  has  disturbed  Austria ;  Ireland  besieged  England ; 
Poland  roused  the  sympathies  and  sometimes  the  indignation  of 
civilized  states ;  pleading  the  rights  of  nationality,  Greece 
commanded  the  services  of  Europe  to  obtain  them ;  by  national 
sympathies  or  aspirations,  Turkey  has  lost  wholly,  or  in  part, 
one  after  another  of  her  little  Slavic  and  Clnistian  principali- 
ties, until,  dismembered  and  disjointed,  the  Moslem  Oriental 
state  has  won  the  nickname  of  the  "  Sick  Man"  of  Europe. 

How  far  nationality  can  really  settle  the  independence  and  the 
boundaries  of  European  states  is  still  an  open  question.  When 
political  boundaries  follow  strongly  marked  geographical  bar- 
riers, such  as  Italy,  Spain,  and  England  possess,  we  will  hardly 
expect  political  disturbance  arising  from  this  source ;  but  the 
partition  of  Poland  shows  how  helpless  a  country  is  without 
such  natural  defences,  while  the  able  and  increasingly  success- 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY,  159 

ful  agitations,  for  "  Home-Rule "  in  Hungary  and  Ireland, 
have  been  strongly  backed  by  their  real  geographical  unity. 
German}',  however,  lies  between  two  badly  defined  boundaries  ; 
and  the  shifting  fortunes  of  her  Russian  and  French  frontiers 
have  proved  already,  and  may  perhaps  in  future  prove,  a  source 
of  serious  difficulty  with  a  greedy  or  discontented  neighbor. 

AYhile  Europe  thus  individualizes  within,  a  glance  at  the  map 
(pp.  520,  521)  will  show  how  rapidly  she  is  penetrating  or  pos- 
sessing the  rest  of  the  world.  Since  the  opening  of  the  sixteenth 
centur}',  the  great  movement  of  population  has  been  from  Europe 
outward;  her  peoples  have  "swarmed"  westward,  eastward, 
southward  ;  with  them  they  have  carried  their  material  civiliza- 
tion, their  ideas,  their  institutions;  already  the  world  itself 
grows  cosmopolitan  ;  and  each  land  gives  of  its  own  good  in 
return  for  that  of  every  other.  As  the  Greek  peopled  the 
^gsean  coasts  and  islands,  as  the  Macedonian  hellenized  West- 
ern Asia,  as  the  Roman  peopled  and  civilized  the  lands  of  the 
Mediterranean  basin,  so  the  European  will  possess  the  world. 
With  each  of  these  movements,  civilization  has  swept  through 
wider  circles  of  land  and  population  ;  on  comparing  its  present 
area  with  that  which  it  held  a  thousand  years  B.C.,  we  note  a 
marvellous  change  ;  then,  in  a  little  knot  of  Oriental  states, 
a  rich,  material  civilization  concentrated  its  enjoyments  and 
powers  in  the  lives  of  nobles,  kings,  priests,  and  merchants; 
now  three  great  continents  are  thoroughly  possessed  by  free 
peoples,  among  whom  a  high  type  of  material  and  intellectual 
civilization  is  widely  spread,  and  still  more  widely  spreading ; 
and  the  same  leaven  has  begun  to  work  through  the  continents 
that  remain. 

But  the  movement  is  not  all  peaceful ;  the  urgent  Europeans 
threaten  to  crowd  each  other  hard  in  the  most  desirable  parts 
of  the  outlying  world ;  in  fact,  the  international  relations  of 
Europe  are  largely  determined  by  colonial  and  commercial 
considerations ;  thus  Russia  and  England  threaten  in  Asia, 
and  clashing  colonial  interests  may  mean  European  war ;  thus 
the  determination  that   Russia  shall   not  win   Constantinople, 


160  ST.UDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

prolongs  the  existence  of  Turke}',  aud  decides  the  combinations 
of  P2urope  in  every  Eastern  complication. 

Turning  from  the  general  history  of  Europe  to  the  history  of 
special  countries,  we  find  in  nearly  every  case  that  this  is 
so  entangled  with  international  or  cosmopolitan  movements 
that  it  only  gives  particular  illustrations  of  general  historic 
tendencies.  Thus  in  England,  as  everywhere,  the  advance  of 
democracy,  colonial  and  commercial  interests,  and  the  problems 
of  labor,  have  been  the  centres  of  action.  There,  as  elsewhere, 
democracy  has  grown  more  and  more  complete  with  the  ad- 
vancing century  ;  one  has  but  to  compare  the  demands  of  the 
Chartists  with  the  reforms  made  by  Parliament  from  1848 
onward,  to  see  how  rapidly  this  political  tendency  has  changed 
from  the  dread  to  the  pet  of  the  public ;  those  demands,  so 
shocking  to  the  English  feeling  of  the  former  time,  are  now 
almost  wholly  answered.  There,  as  elsewhere,  but  more  than 
elsewhere,  commerce  has  led  men  forth  to  civilize  and  conquer. 
So  important  are  her  colonies  and  her  commercial  routes,  that 
the  foreign  relations  of  England  may  almost  be  explained  by 
reference  to  these  alone.  Thus  the  fear  of  Russia  determines 
her  attitude  in  all  affairs  where  Constantinople  is  threatened  or 
involved,  while  the  Suez  Canal,  her  all-important  highway  to 
India,  constantly  entangles  her  in  Egyptian  affairs.  In  her 
colonial  and  commercial  relations,  England  has  proven  herself 
at  times  the  benefactor,  at  times  the  oppressor,  of  inferior 
races.  But  it  may  perhaps  be  said  that  such  acts  of  injus- 
tice as  the  Opium  War,  and  the  imposition  of  her  own  ruler 
in  Afghanistan,  have  been  overbalanced  by  the  higher  civiliza- 
tion she  has  introduced,  by  the  roads  she  has  opened,  by  the 
missionaries  and  schools  she  has  protected,  and  by  such  meas- 
ures as  the  abolition  of  widow-burning  and  the  suppression  of 
the  Thugs  in  India. 

In  England,  too,  as  elsewhere,  the  problems  of  labor  have 
caused  threatening  movements  and  important  legislation. 
First,  the  progress  of  mechanical  invention  substituted  ma- 
chines for  men  in  manufactures ;  the  first  result  of  this  was  to 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  161 

throw  out  of  work  a  mass  of  artisans,  mostly  skilled  laborers, 
who  had  no  other  way  of  making  a  living  than  that  the  machine 
had  taken.  Then  came  the  Corn-laws,  which  injured  all  classes 
by  raising  the  price  of  bread,  and  only  benefited  for  the  time 
being  the  English  wheat-growers,  who,  by  holding  a  monopoly 
of  a  prime  necessity,  could  say  to  the  public,  "Your  money 
or  your  life."  All  along,  too,  one  serious  element^  in  the  Irish 
problem  has  been  a  labor-question  in  regard  to  the  due  rela- 
tions of  various  classes  to  the  soil. 

In  France,  again,  the  trends  of  the  century  appear.  The 
restored  Bourbons,  though  forced  to  recognize  constitutional 
forms,  did  not  even  learn  from  the  Revolution  that  peace  and 
order  lay  in  the  development,  not  the  suppression,  of  liberty, 
and  came  back  rather  with  memories  of  "how  they  used  to 
do"  than  ideas  of  "how  they  ought  to^  do."  Their  measures 
against  the  freedom  of  the  press,  as  well  as  those  taken  after- 
wards by  the  third  Napoleon,  show  how  thoroughly  men  have 
begun  to  realize  that  the  printing-press  is  the  most  formidable 
of  modern  political  forces,  since  it  is  our  present  "  organ  of 
persuasion."  That  Louis  Napoleon,  although  following  much 
in  their  footsteps,  did  not  follow  the  Bourbons  into  banish- 
ment, was  due  to  the  power  of  his  name,  which  was  associated 
with  an  epoch  of  true  national  glory,  and  with  the  first  days  of 
peaceful  freedom  from  the  "  Old  R^ime."  By  appealing,  too, 
to  the  universal  vote,  he  not  only  recognized  the  fundamental 
political  change  of  the  Revolution,^  but  assured  his  election 
by  throwing  it  into  the  hands  of  an  ignorant  majority,  whose 
political  education  had  not  yet  extended  far  enough  thoroughly 
to  comprehend  the  Napoleons,  beyond  their  "outward  show." 

1  This  is  a  social  element ;  added  to  this,  as  a  political  grievance,  has 
been  the  lack  of  "Home-rule."  (See  also  p.  159  of  this  manual,  and 
compare  Hungary.) 

2  The  political  revolution  of  modern  times  seems  to  be  as  thoroughly 
established  in  France  as  in  England ;  but  France  is  as  seriously  threatened 
as  the  rest  of  the  world  by  the  social  revolution  springing  from  the 
demands  of  labor,  and  in  Germany  the  story  is  the  same. 


162  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

The  special  studies  on  the  German  Empire  and  the  kingdom 
of  Italy  not  only  show  the  development  of  two  powerful  mod- 
ern states,  but  also  illustrate  the  conquering  power  of  ideas 
and  ideals  when  once  the}-  reach  the  popular  masses.  In  both 
countries  the  leading  movements  have  been  the  same, — 
towards  national  union,  and  towards  constitutional  liberty ;  of 
these,  the  latter  has  been  part  of  an  impulse  common  to  all 
the  civilized  peoples  of  our  century  ;  the  former  has  been  dis- 
tinctive of  Germany  and  Italy,  among  the  greater  powers. 

In  Germany,  as  in  France,  the  free  press  has  been  the  terror 
of  the  "Old  Regime,"  and  for  the  same  reasons  ;  but  in  Germany 
has  been  added  to  that  the  influence  of  the  schools  and  uni- 
versities ;  the  censorship  of  the  press  and  that  of  the  university 
have  been  the  new  persecutions  which  these  new  weapons  have 
evolved  ;  although  Austria  has  endeavored  to  meet  them  by  set 
teaching  of  the  principles  and  spirit  of  the  older  order.  When 
Frederick  William  the  Fourth  declares,  "A  sheet  of  paper 
shall  not  come  between  me  and  my  subjects,"  he  forgets  that, 
in  the  large  modern  state,  a  sheet  of  paper  is  the  only  possible 
means  of  communication  between  a  monarch  and  his  busy, 
widely-scattered  subjects. 

But  the  outcome  of  events  in  Germany  proves,  beyond  a 
doubt,  the  use  of  long-continued  political  agitation  as  an  agent 
of  political  change.  In  Germany,  as  elsewhere,  it  has  led  to 
the  full  recognition  of  the  principle  that  government  should  be 
for  the  people  and  by  the  people.  The  development  of  German 
unity  shows  the  value  of  still  another  power  in  politics,  —  the 
power  of  enthusiasm.  The  common  forms  and  traditions,  the 
heroes  and  the  deeds  that  warmed  men's  hearts  with  common 
pride  in  the  German  name,  roused  that  pride  at  length  to  the 
making  of  an  empire  and  a  nation. 

The  latest  history  of  Italy,  even  more  than  that  of  German3% 
has  an  epic  unity  and  spirit.  In  1815  Savoy  alone  was  under 
native  rule ;  her  government  alone  could  appeal  to  native  sup- 
port ajid   sympathy.     As  part  of   the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 


THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY.  163 

Italy  had  become  since  the  days  of  Charles  the  Fifth,  partly 
heritage  of  Spain,  and  partly  heritage  of  Austria,  while  in  the 
days  of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  the  pope  had  received  as  a 
gift  his  part  of  the  soil  of  the  Christian  Empire. 

In  Ital}',  the  movement  for  nationality,  inspired  by  the  love 
of  independence,  —  and  the  movement  for  constitutionalism,  in- 
spired by  the  love  of  political  liberty,  were  each  sustained  by 
great  historic  memories,  reaching  back  to  the  days  of  the  later 
Koman  republic,  when  Italy  was  free,  united,  and  great. 

Although  the  interference  of  European  monarchs  in  Neapoli- 
tan affairs  called  forth  Italian  indignation,  still  it  was  a  pure 
measure  of  self-defence,  since  the  stirring  of  one  people 
against  a  king  might  mean  the  stirring  of  Europe  against  the 
whole  monarchic  sj'stem  ;  thus  England  had  stirred  France,  — 
France,  Spain  and  German}',  —  and  Spain,  in  turn,  had  now 
roused  Naples.  Naples,  indeed,  could  have  been  appeased, 
and  the  power  of  the  king  established  by  the  prudent  and 
genuine  grant  of  a  liberal  constitution  ;  but  with  the  troops  of 
Austria  and  the  sympathies  of  the  monarchs  behind  him,  the 
Neapolitan  ruler  naturally  underrated  the  moral  forces  spring- 
ing to  arms  against  him.  Indeed,  the  Italian  struggle  against 
Austria  was  throughout  the  struggle  of  moral  with  physical 
powers.  On  the  side  of  Austria  were  troops,  and  treasure, 
and  the  might  of  an  old,  successful  name  ;  on  the  side  of  Italy 
were  justice,  truth,  a  never-yielding  purpose  and  enthusiasm. 

Savoy  alone  was  free  to  embody  and  lead  the  Italian  aspira- 
tions, and  give  them  political  and  military  force.  Victor  Em- 
manuel as  the  one  Italian,  the  one  constitutional  ruler  of  Italy, 
could  command  the  respect,  the  loyalty,  the  admiration,  of 
the  whole  peninsula.  In  order  that  Italy  might  win  attention 
and  respect  from  the  European  commonwealth,  Cavour  involved 
her  in  the  Crimean  War ;  in  order  that  she  might  claim  the 
sympathy  and  aid  of  France,  he  gave  a  daughter  of  old  Savoy 
in  marriage  to  a  Napoleonic  adventurer,  thus  taking  advan- 
tage, too,  of  the  historic  enmity  of  Austria  and  France. 

The  principle  of  popular  government  has  never  been  more 


164  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL   HISTORY. 

absolutely  respected  nor  more  nobly  used  than  in  uniting  state 
after  state  to  patriotic,  liberal  Savoy ;  and  never  has  history 
more  nearly  touched  the  highest  poetic  justice  than  in  the 
return  of  a  pure  Italian  government  to  Rome,  at  once  the 
geographic  and  historic  centre  of  the  whole  peninsula. 

The  question  is  often  asked,  ''What  is  the  relation  of 
biography  to  history?  '*  In  general,  it  may  be  said  that  there 
are  no  more  important  or  significant  historical  facts,  and  no 
stronger  historical  forces,  than  the  lives  of  men.  Wherever  the 
teacher's  time  is  short,  and  the  era  he  deals  with  great,  he  can 
do  no  better  than  to  take  some  one  man  whose  life  was  thor- 
oughly mingled  with  that  of  his  time,  and  make  as  exhaustive 
a  study  as  possible  of  his  character,  and  its  relations  to 
the  contemporary  world.  These  character-studies  form  with 
younger  classes  an  excellent  concrete  introduction  to  more 
abstract  historical  inquiries ;  and  even  in  the  most  abstract  of 
these  inquiries,  one  meets  here  and  there  men  so  intimately 
connected  with  affairs,  that  they  seem,  as  it  were,  to  have 
embodied  their  age  or  country  in  their  own  strong  personalities. 
Victor  Emmanuel  belongs  beyond  a  doubt  among  such  men  as 
these ;  and  Cavour  and  Mazzini  do  not  fall  far  short  of  it.  I 
have,  therefore,  in  p.  533,  introduced  character-studies  of  these 
three,  not  alone  on  account  of  their  intrinsic  importance,  but 
as  excellent  examples  of  the  way  in  which  biography  and 
history  mingle. 

Cavour  represents  the  conservative  liberal ;  the  man  who 
neither  breaks  with  the  old,  nor  rejects  the  new ;  a  man  who  is 
at  once  a  devoted  patriot  and  a  prudent  statesman  ;  a  thinker, 
a  worker,  but  in  every  deed  and  thought,  practical ;  with  that 
rare  power  which  can  devote  itself  to  an  unattained  ideal,  and  at 
the  same  time  can  see  the  very  next  step  which  must  be  taken 
to  reach  it.  His  patriotism  bound  him  at  once  to  the  people 
and  the  monarch  ;  his  prudence  commanded  the  respect  of  the 
most  conservative  courts,  and  tempered  the  ardent  action  of  the 
king ;  while  that  genius  of  practical  imagination  which  saw  the 


THE  NINETEENTH  CENTURY.  165 

possible  relations  of  the  distant  and  the  near,  enabled  him  to 
turn  every  circumstance  and  every  resource  to  the  freedom  and 
unity  of  Italy.  To  accomplish  this,  he  aimed  at  two  things : 
to  make  Piedmont  the  leader  of  the  peninsula ;  to  bring  Italy 
into  the  European  commonwealth ;  while  besides  these  imme- 
diate objects,  his  policy  alwa3'S  had  in  mind  that  "  inevitable 
future  "of  democracy. 

What  Cavour  would  and  did  accomplish  by  a  policy  of  com- 
promise and  delay,  Mazzini  wished  to  do  by  outspoken  war  on 
what  he  hated,  and  devotion  unto  death  to  what  he  loved. 
Each  nature  had  its  value  in  the  making  of  Italy ;  she  needed 
the  utter  abandonment  of  self,  the  clear  vision  of  ultimate 
destiny,  the  religious  fervor  M  Mazzini ;  perhaps  she  needed 
even  more  the  cool  head  of  Cavour,  since  her  foes  were  more 
easily  to  be  overcome  by  skilful  diplomacy  and  prudent  delay 
than  by  the  most  ardent  essay  of  arms  or  eloquence.^ 

Although  patriotism  was  the  ruling  passion  in  Cavour  and 
Victor  Emmanuel,  as  well  as  in  Mazzini,  in  Mazzini  this  passion 
became  a  religion,  with  Italy  for  its  deity  and  its  conscience ; 
"the  martyrs"  of  the  people's  cause,  "the  adoration  of  prin- 
ciples," "  the  omnipotent  duty,"  "  your  countr}^,  a  visible  evan- 
gel of  love,"  —  these  are  the  phrases  of  a  worship,  a  faith. 

If  Cavour  was  the  statesman,  and  Mazzini  the  prophet  of 
the  Italian  movement,  Victor  Emmanuel  was  its  hero  ;  trained 
as  a  soldier,  he  was  bred  for  a  time  of  war ;  reared  simply  and 
hardily,  lie  had  the  respect  of  the  simple  and  hardy  classes, 
and  could  sympathize  with  them  ;  trained  in  the  catechism  and 
Roman  history,  he  was  a  good  Catholic  and  an  intelligent 
patriot ;  while  he  had  at  command  the  historic  and  popular 
tongues  of  his  own  Italy,  and  the  cosmopolitan  French  of  his 
best  neighbor.  Not  only  by  training,  but  by  nature,  he  was 
the  true  king  of  Italy ;  an  ardent  patriot,  he  loved  his  land  and 

'  The  fact  that  Mazzini  was  forced  to  publish  his  writings  in  London, 
shows  that  the  censorship  of  the  press  excluded  his  influence  from  Italy 
as  hauch  as  possible,  where  he  most  desired  it  to  be  felt ;  incidentally,  too, 
it  shows  the  political  freedom  existing  in  England. 


166  STUDIES   IN   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

trusted  his  folk ;  a  prudent  liberal,  he  neither  offended  too  far 
the  European  monarchs  when  he  had  not  power  to  withstand 
them,  nor  did  he  hold  back  freedom  from  the  people  for  an 
instant  after  he  felt  he  could  defend  it ;  but  the  man  was  more 
than  the  soldier  or  statesman  ;  his  devoted,  self-forgetful  enthu- 
siasm drew  to  him  the  hearts  of  the  whole  people  with  a  tide 
of  passionate  loyalty  that  swept  away  every  barrier  that  party, 
and  history,  and  religion  itself  could  rear. 

I  have  named  the  sketchy  extracts,  pp.  534-538,  a  study  on 
socialism,  merely  for  the  sake  of  uniformity,  although  they  are 
worth  little  more  than  to  attract  aj^tention  to  the  aims  of  the  great 
social  revolution  which  seems  to  press  nearer  and  nearer.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  subject  of  more  immediate  importance  than 
this,  and  none  more  variously  understood.  The  movement  in 
general  insists  upon  a  substitution  of  the  co-operative  principle 
for  that  of  competition,  and  therefore  threatens  the  whole 
present  system  of  industry ;  it  would  make  the  state  the  owner 
of  the  means  of  labor,  and  therefore  threatens  all  private 
property  at  present  invested  in  these  means  with  a  transfer,  if 
not  with  a  loss  ;  its  advocates  are  inspired  with  an  earnest 
enthusiasm,  and  not  rarely  with  a  genuine  devotion,  which  gives 
to  socialism  the  power  of  a  faith ;  its  demands  are  backed  by 
the  actual  physical  force  of  an  army  of  laborers,  on  whom 
society  depends  for  food,  and  dress,  and  shelter,  for  transpor- 
tation and  protection  ;  in  common  with  Christianity,  it  teaches 
the  brotherhood  of  man,  and  asserts  the  principle  of  helpful, 
social  union,  as  against  the  law  of  the  "struggle  for  exist- 
ence." After  noting  these  points,  the  teacher  may  act  his  own 
judgment  as  to  how  far  he  may  wisely  pursue  a  study,  mate- 
rials for  which  he  will  find  ready  to  his  hand  in  every  week's 
news,  and  in  any  population  among  which  he  lives. 

The  points  to  be  made  from  the  *'  Study  on  0,"  p.  539,  are 
for  the  most  part  embodied  in  the    foregoing   summary.     At 


THE   NINETEENTH   CENTURY.  167 

least  two  days  should  be  devoted  to  this  study,  the  second  of 
which  may  be  profitably  spent  in  a  general  conversation  in 
regard  to  the  points  suggested  by  the  questions.  The  aim  of 
the  teacher  in  this  study  should  be  to  rouse  the  student's 
interest  in  the  greatness  of  the  movements  in  the  midst  of 
which  he  himself  lives. 

If  the  studies  from  p.  3  to  p.  539  have  been  of  any  value, 
the  "General  Review  Study"  on  the  last  page  needs  no 
comment. 


AIDS 


FOR 


TEACHING  GENERAL  HISTORY; 


INCLUDING 


A   LIST    OF    BOOKS    RECOMMENDED    FOR    A 
WORKING   SCHOOL  LIBRARY. 


BY 


MARY   D.  SHELDON, 

Formerly  Professor  of  History  in  Wellesley  College, 

Teacher  of  History  in  the  Oswego  Normal 

School,  New  York,  and  Author  of 

Studies  ik  General  History. 


3j<Kc 


PUBLISHED   BY   D.    C.    HEATH  &   CO., 

Boston,  New  York,  and  Chicago. 

1896. 


Copyright,  1888, 
Bt  Mart  Shbldon-Baknes. 


TtPOORAPHT  bt  J.   S.  CUBHINO   &  Co.,  BOSTOH. 


AIDS  FOR   TEACHING  GENERAL   HISTORY. 


The  time  has  come  when  the  teacher  of  history,  as  well  as 
the  teacher  of  chemistry  or  biology,  demands  for  his  work  a 
certain  material  equipment,  which  shall  enable  his  pupils  to 
realize  some  of  that  mental  vigor  which  springs  from  individ- 
ual work  with  the  sources  of  knowledge.  In  Germany,  this 
demand  has  been  met  by  what  are  known  as  Quellenhucher^ 
or  collections  of  illustrative  and  original  sources  ;  and  in  my 
own  Skidies  in  General  History,  I  have  made  some  attempt  to 
meet  such  a  need  for  our  secondary  schools ;  but  even  had  the 
teacher  some  ideal  Quellenbuch  to  place  in  the  hands  of  his 
pupils,  he  would  still  find  that  every  extension  of  equipment 
which  can  give  new  material  for  loork  and  thought  will  pay  for 
itself  again  and  again  in  results  more  genuine  and  lasting. 

For  the  teacher  of  history,  a  material  equipment  mostly 
consists  of  pictures,  maps,  and  books.  Of  pictures,  the  most 
valuable  are  photographs  of  buildings,  statues,  monuments, 
reliefs,  and  remains  in  general,^  —  and  contemporary  prints, 
portraits,  or  engravings  of  the  time  to  be  considered.  The  lat- 
ter can  often  be  found  in  desirable  reproductions,  and  teacher 
and  pupil  alike  will  find  a  great  interest  in  collecting  historical 
cuts  and  engravings  from  old  and  new  magazines  and  the 
better  class  of  illustrated  papers.  These,  as  well  as  the  pho- 
tographs, should  be  nicely  mounted  on  separate  sheets  of  uni- 
form style  and  size,  and  clearly  labelled;  in  the  case  of  an 

1  The  Soule  Photo.  Co.,  338  Washington  St.,  Boston,  Mass.,  will  furnish  on 
application  catalogues  of  such  photographs,  unmounted,  from  which  a  very 
desirable  selection  may  be  made. 


4  AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

engraving  or  print,  its  source  and  date  should  be  given.  The 
mounting,  labelling,  and  collecting,  and  even  the  purchasing, 
should  be  done,  as  far  as  possible,  by  the  pupils,  the  teacher 
being  prime  director  and  adviser.  Of  maps,  the  best  available 
collection  for  most  of  our  schools  is  that  of  Labberton ;  and 
his  last  edition  is  accompanied  by  a  full  text,  which  makes  it 
a  good  work  of  reference  as  well.  But  this  collection  should 
be  duplicated  and  supplemented  by  maps  of  the  pupils'  own 
making.  These  may  be  quickly  and  effectually  made  by  using 
Heath's  Outline  Maps  of  Ancient  History,  Europe^  Central  and 
Western  Europe^  British  Isles,  England,  France,  Germany,  Italy, 
Greece,  etc.,^  and  filling  in  the  historical  part  with  colored  pen- 
cils, ink,  or,  when  pupils  are  so  inclined,  they  may  be  more 
elaborately  finished  with  water-colors.  A  sheet  of  such  little 
maps  of  France,  for  instance,  showing  her  territorial  divisions 
and  boundaries  at  different  dates,  would  make  an  excellent 
graphical  presentation  of  much  of  her  history. 

Closely  allied  to  maps  are  graphical  representations  of  time, 
which  are  a  powerful  aid  in  remembering  the  relation  and 
sequence  of  dates.  There  are  several  publications  which  pre- 
sent history  in  this  way;  Lyman's  Historical  Chart  (Philadel- 
phia) being  one  of  the  best.  But  far  better  than  any  prepared 
work  of  this  kind  are  century-maps,  as  they  may  be  called, 
done  by  the  pupils  themselves.  At  the  very  beginning  of  his 
study,  the  student  should  provide  himself  with  as  many  sheets 
of  good  stout  paper  as  there  are  centuries  in  his  proposed 
course.*  The  ordinary  sermon  size  will  be  convenient,  and 
some  arrangement  should  be  made  by  which,  as  the  study  pro- 
gresses, these  sheets  may  be  fastened  together  like  a  long  fold- 
ing map,  so  as  to  give  the  eye  a  continuous  representation  of 

1  For  the  graphic  representation,  by  the  pupil  of  geography,  geology,  his- 
tory, meteorology,  economics,  and  statistics  of  all  kinds.  Two  cents  each; 
per  hundred,  31.50.  Map  of  Ancient  History,  three  cents  each;  per  hundred, 
$2JK). 

3  The  ordinary  stout  manilla  paper,  sold  at  a  few  cents  a  yard,  is  heartily 
recommended  for  these  mounts. 


AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL   HISTORY.  5 

the  time  considered.  Each  of  these  sheets  should  be  boldly 
and  strikingly  headed  by  its  own  century,  each  should  bear  in 
separate  colors  the  countries  considered,  and  each  should  have 
its  two  or  three  leading  events,  names,  or  movements  heavily 
'  and  clearly  printed  out.  The  principle  underlying  such  repre- 
sentations is,  that  visible  place-relations  are  of  great  value  to 
the  average  mind  in  fixing  and  remembering  the  more  abstract 
relations  of  time.  But  within  the  boundaries  of  this  principle, 
the  pupil  should  be  left  very  free  to  fill  out  his  century-map 
in  the  style,  proportion,  and  detail  which  best  suits  him,  since 
the  more  closely  the  work  is  done  in  accordance  with  indi- 
vidual taste  and  aptitudes,  the  more  strongly  will  it  grow  into 
the  memory  as  a  permanent  acquisition. 

Of  books  it  is  more  difficult  to  form  a  collection ;  and  yet 
some  accessible  collection  is  necessary,  and  the  more  of  it  that 
can  be  placed  in  the  class-room  itself,  the  better.  The  teacher 
needs  at  least  four  different  kinds  of  books,  each  kind  having  its 
own  power  and  worth.  He  needs  a  full  and  accurate  collection 
of  dates,  facts,  and  names,  well  indexed ;  the  best  single  work 
of  this  sort  is  perhaps  Tillinghast's  Floetz^  Epitome  of  Univer- 
sal History.  He  needs  a  good  modern  narrative,  which  shall 
embody  the  results  of  the  best  scholarship,  and  serve  as  a  guide 
to  proportion  and  completeness ;  such  an  aid  is  to  be  found  in 
Freeman's  General  Course.  If  he  has  access  to  a  library,  or 
the  means  to  form  one,  he  wants  to  know  what  are  the  best 
books  on  any  part  of  his  subject,  and  the  value  and  contents  of 
others ;  such  an  aid  he  will  find  in  Adams'  Manual  of  His- 
torical Literature.  A  shorter  and  very  useful  bibliography  of 
the  subject  has  been  made  by  Prof.  W.  F.  Allen  of  Wisconsin 
University,  and  is  published  in  Hall's  Methods  of  Teaching  and 
/Studying  History.^  These  aids  being  obtained,  the  teacher  is 
ready  to  buy  and  use  advantageously  books  of  a  fourth  class, 
—  books  which  bring  him  as  near  as  possible  to  the  deeds,  the 

1  This  bibliography  adds  also  an  excellent  short  list  of  historical  novels, 
poems,  and  plays.    The  publishers  are  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston. 


6  AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

lives,  the  thoughts  and  feelings,  of  historic  eras  and  peoples. 
Of  these  books,  Plutarch's  Lives  deserves  the  first  place  in  the 
list.  But,  whether  much  or  little  can  be  done  to  obtain  such 
expressions  of  the  past,  teacher  and  pupils  can  at  least  co-oper- 
ate to  preserve  for  the  school  some  collection  illustrative  of  the 
present  time.  If  the  means  are  not  available  for  keeping  the 
complete  file  of  a  first-class  paper,  and  even  if  they  are,  teacher 
and  pupils  should  collect  newspaper  clijDpings,  pamphlets, 
notices,  and  other  ephemeral  publications  which  contain  sig- 
nificant speeches,  letters,  arguments,  or  striking  accounts  of 
contemporary  events  by  the  actors  or  witnesses.  Such  collec- 
tions grow  rapidly  in  value.  Such  materials  dating  from  the 
Civil  War  or  from  the  preceding  slavery  contest  are  already  dif- 
ficult to  obtain,  though  full  of  historic  interest  and  instruc- 
tion ;  and  our  own  time  has  as  surely  its  desirable,  though 
ephemeral,  records.  Such  materials  as  these  might  be  kept 
in  a  series  of  annual  scrap-books,  or  in  large  manilla  envelopes, 
enclosed  in  covers,  classified  according  to  years  or  half-years. 
A  good  plan  is  to  keep  pictures,  maps,  and  scraps  on  mounts 
of  the  same  size,  or  that  may  be  folded  to  the  same  size,  and 
to  arrange  them,  without  regard  to  subject,  in  alphabetical 
order,  in  stiff,  clearly-labelled  covers.  Others  may  prefer  to 
arrange  them  by  topics  ;  but  such  collections  are  rather  like 
a  dictionary  or  cyclopedia  than  a  narration,  and  the  alpha- 
betical plan  requires  fewest  cross-references.  But  teachers 
need  never  hesitate  at  the  labor  of  making  rearrangements, 
whenever  it  seems  desirable ;  since  such  work  is  of  great 
value  to  pupils,  as  well  as  very  agreeable  to  them,  provided 
you  do  not  ask  them  to  do  their  oivn  ivork  over. 

Such  a  material  equipment  as  that  above  indicated  is  the 
very  least  that  any  teacher  of  general  history  should  demand 
of  himself  and  his  patrons.  Where  means  and  opportunities 
are  more  generous,  the  teacher  should  extend  his  aids  as  rap- 
idly as  possible,  having  due  regard  to  tlie  properties  of  his 
subject  and  the  ability  and  available  time  of  his  students. 


AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL   HISTORY.  7 

He  will  find  that  the  purchases  which  will  pay  best  in  inter- 
est and  enthusiasm  are  books  of  the  fourth  class  named  above, 
—  books  which  may  be  described  as  those  of  the  earliest  or 
contemporary  sources  {List  D). 

In  making  the  following  list,  books  of  the  first  three  classes 
are  named,  as  well  as  those  of  the  fourth,  since  many  schools 
are  so  situated  as  to  have  access  to  no  large  library.  In  such 
cases,  enough  of  the  first  three  classes  must  be  purchased  to 
render  the  sources  intelligible  ;  where  larger  purchases  of  such 
works  are  within  the  means  of  the  school,  the  buyer  should 
carefully  consult  Adams'  Manual. 


A.     BOOKS   COVERING   THE   WHOLE   FIELD   OF   GENERAL 

HISTORY. 

Adams,  Charles  K.  Manual  of  Historical  Literature.  New  York, 
1882.  $2.50.  A  descriptive  and  critical  biijliograpli}^  of  the  whole  sub- 
ject, including  an  especially  fine  portion  on  United  States  history. 

Bagehot,  Walter.  Physics  and  Politics,  or  thoughts  on  the  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  natural  selection  and  inheritance  to  politi- 
cal society.     London  and  New  Yorl<;,  1873.     $1.50. 

"  I  only  profess  to  explain  what  seem  to  me  the  political  prerequisites 
of  progress,  and  especially  of  early  progress.  .  .  .  Here  physical  causes 
do  not  create  the  moral,  but  moral  create  the  physical." 

Freeman,  Edward  A.  General  Sketch  of  History.  London  and  New 
York,  1880.  $1.00.  A  complete,  compact  narrative,  accurate,  well- 
proportioned,  philosophical. 

Haydn,  J.  Dictionary  of  Dates.  New  York,  1885.  Eighteenth  edi- 
tion, revised  to  date.  $5.00.  A  full  and  standard  work  of  refer- 
ence, in  which  events  and  names  are  arranged  alphabetically,  with 
full  dates  and  summary  descriptions. 

Labberton,  Robert  H.  New  Historical  Atlas  and  General  History. 
New  York,  1886.      $2.40.      198  colored  maps  and  30  genealogical 


8  AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

charts.  The  maps  are  admirable  for  the  uses  of  the  class-room, 
or  for  any  student  who  is  making  his  first  acquaintance  with  the 
study  of  General  History  since  they  are  diagrammatic  and  free 
from  detail. 

Ploetz,  Carl.  Epitome  of  Ancient,  Mediaeval,  and  Modem  History. 
Translated,  with  extensive  additions,  by  William  H.  Tillinghast. 
Boston  and  New  York,  1884.  $3.00.  This  work  can  hardly  be 
overestimated  as  a  handbook  of  general  reference ;  it  is  very  fully 
indexed,  and  the  matter  is  arranged  in  periods  and  by  countries.  It 
is  especially  valuable  in  modern  history  for  the  full  summaries  that 
are  given  of  treaties. 

Sheldon,  M.  D.  Studies  in  General  History.  Boston,  1885.  $1.60. 
Contains  many  illustrative  extracts  from  original  sources. 

Thomas.  Universal  Pronouncing  Dictionary  of  Biography  and  My- 
thology. Titled  on  back  as  Lippincott's  pronouncing  biographical 
dictionary.  Philadelphia,  1886.  One  volume,  .$12.00;  two  volumes, 
.$15.00.     The  standard  dictionary  of  this  sort  in  English. 

[Since  new  editions  are  constantly  appearing  of  some  of  the 
above  works,  care  should  be  taken  in  purchasing,  to  insist  always 
on  the  latest  in  the  market.] 


B.    BOOKS    COVERING    THE    WHOLE    FIELD    OF    ANCIENT 
HISTORY,    OR   OF   GREEK   AND   ROMAN   HISTORY. 

Fustel  de  Coulanges.  The  Ancient  City.  A  Study  on  the  Religion, 
Laws,  and  Institutions  of  Greece  and  Rome.  Edited  in  translation 
from  the  latest  French  edition,  by  Willard  Small.  Boston,  1874. 
$2.00.  This  book  is  perhaps  the  best  single  volume  that  can  be 
read  in  order  to  gain  an  insight  into  the  underlying  principles, 
tendencies,  and  character  of  antiquity.  The  author  is  brilliant, 
pliilosophical,  and  scholarly. 

Reber,  Franz  von.  History  of  Ancient  Art,  with  310  illustrations. 
Published  in  translation  from  the  German.  New  York,  1882.  $2.50. 
This  work  covers  the  whole  field  for  Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  Greece, 
and  Rome ;  and  its  excellent  and  numerous  pictures  make  it  invalu- 
able. 

Sheldon,  M.  D.  Studies  in  Greek  and  Roman  History.  Boston,  1886. 
$1.00.    Simply  the  first  half  of  the  "  Studies  in  General  History." 


AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL   HISTORY.  9 

Smith,  Philip.  A  History  of  the  World,  from  the  Earliest  Records  to 
the  Present  Time.  Only  Ancient  History  finished,  in  three  volumes. 
London  and  New  York,  1866.  $6.00.  An  excellent  narrative  his- 
tory of  the  whole  period  of  ancient  history,  including  that  of  Egypt, 
Assyria,  Babylonia,  Juda3a,  Persia,  Greece,  and  Rome.  Its  style  is 
easy,  and  embellished  with  many  extracts  from  original  sources. 
Adams  recommends  it  as  the  product  of  "  a  careful  and  judicious 
observer." 

Smith,  William.  Dictionary  of  Greek  and  Roman  Antiquities.  New 
York,  1843.  $6.00.  The  standard  work  on  this  subject,  and  ren- 
dered still  more  valuable  by  many  cuts  from  ancient  coins,  reliefs, 
etc. 


C.     BOOKS  COVERING  THE  WHOLE  FIELD  OF  MODERN,  MEDI- 
EVAL, OR  OF  MODERN  AND  MEDLEVAL  HISTORY. 

There  is  no  single  work  in  Englisli  which  covers  tlie  modern  and 
media3val  periods  so  admirably  as  Philip  Smith's  History  of  the 
World  covers  the  field  of  antiquity;  although,  in  French,  Victor 
Duruy's  manuals  of  MediaBval  and  Modern  History  i  cover  the  field 
admirably,  being  scliolarly,  vivid,  and  rich  in  illustration.  Of 
books  accessible  in  English,  tlie  following  are  recommended:  — 

Bryce,  James.  The  Holy  Roman  Empire.  New  York,  1877.  $1.75. 
A  sketch  of  the  first  importance  for  understanding  the  organic 
connections  of  ancient  and  modern  history,  of  Church  and  State, 
of  the  Papacy  and  the  Empire,  from  the  beginning  of  our  era  to  the 
present  time. 

Dyer,  Thomas  Hemy.  The  History  of  Modern  Europe  from  the  Fall 
of  Constantinople  in  1453  to  the  close  of  the  Crimean  War  in  1857. 
Five  volumes.  London,  1861.  $22.50.  A  standard,  very  full,  and 
accurate  work  of  reference,  in  narrative  form. 

Gibbon,  Edward.  The  History  of  the  Decline  'and  Fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire.  The  best  edition  is  that  of  Dr.  Smith.  London.  Eight 
volumes.  New  York,  1880.  Six  volumes.  $12.00.  This  classical 
work  is  still  a  rich  repertory  of  material  for  all  the  centuries,  from 
the  age  of  Trajan  and  the  Antonines,  to  the  taking  of  Constantinople 

1  "Histoire  du  Moyen  Age"  and  "Histoire  des  Temps  Modernes"  ;  each 
of  these  is  published  in  a  single  moderate  12mo  volume. 


10  AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

by  the  Turks  in  1453.  The  notes  of  this  edition,  by  Milman  and 
Guizot,  add  greatly  to  its  value.  Although  Gibbon  was  the  first  to 
give  a  just  estimate  of  the  life  and  work  of  Mohammed,  still  this 
portion  of  his  work,  perhaps,  most  requires  the  supplement  of  modern 
scholarship.  The  best  single  book  to  furnish  this  is,  in  my  judg- 
ment, R.  Bosworth  Smith's  Mohammed  and  Mohammedanism.  New 
York,  $1.50. 

Guizot,  Frangois.  History  of  Civilization  in  Europe.  Paris,  1831. 
Translations  published  in  New  York  and  London.  Two  volumes. 
$4.00.  "  Perhaps  no  other  historical  book  is  capable  of  stirring  more 
earnest  and  fruitful  thought  in  a  thoughtful  student." —  Adams. 

Lacroiz,  Paul.  The  Arts  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  at  the  Period  of  the 
Renaissance. 

Manners,  Customs,  and  Dress  during  the  Middle  Ages. 

Military  and  Religious  Life  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  at  the  Period 
of  the  Renaissance. 

The  Eighteenth  Century;  its  Institutions,  Customs,  and  Cos- 
tumes. 

Science  and  Literature  in  the  Middle  Ages  and  at  the  Period  of 
the  Renaissance. 

Five  volumes;  large  octavo.  London,  1880.  Edited  in  trans- 
lation from  the  French.  Lacroix  was  long  curator  of  the  Library 
of  the  Arsenal  in  Paris ;  and  these  books  derive  their  great  value 
from  their  wealth  of  fac-simile  illustration,  drawn  from  contem- 
porary manuscripts,  coins,  carvings,  and  their  numerous  cuts  of 
buildings,  monuments,  furniture,  armor,  etc.  They  were  originally 
published  at  $12.00  a  volume,  and  that  is  still  their  price  in  first- 
class  binding,  and  with  all  their  fac-similes;  but  copies  can  be 
obtained  bound  in  cloth,  and  lacking  the  colored  reproductions,  for 
much  less,  and  almost  as  valuable  for  school  purposes.  The  vol- 
umes are  sold  separately.  The  most  useful  ones  for  general  use 
are  "  The  Arts"  and  "  Military  and  Religious  Life."  Second-hand 
copies  can  occasionally  be  obtained. 

Morris,  Edward  A.  [editor] .  Epochs  of  History.  London.  A  series 
of  16mo  vols.,  republished  in  New  York  from  time  to  time  by  the 
Scribners,  and  sold  separately  at  $1.00  a  volume.  Especially  valu- 
able for  the  general  student  are  the  numbers  on  The  Crusades,  The 
Tliirty  Years'  War,  The  Puritan  Revolution,  The  Beginning  of  the 
Middle  Ages,  The  French  Revolution,  and  The  Era  of  the  Protestant 
Revolution. 


AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY.  11 

Sheppard,  John  G.  The  Fall  of  Rome  and  the  Rise  of  the  New 
Nationalities.  A  series  of  lectures  on  the  connection  between 
ancient  and  modern  history.  London  and  New  York,  1861.  $2.50. 
"Large  dependence  on  original  authorities."  —  Adams.  Gives  an 
excellent  foundation  for  an  understanding  of  the  Middle  Age. 

White,  Rev.  James.  The  Eighteen  Christian  Centuries.  London  and 
New  York.  Second  edition,  1862.  $2.00.  A  short,  vivid  review  of 
the  leading  events  and  characters  from  the  time  of  Christ  to  the 
present  day. 


D.     TRANSLATIONS,   REPRINTS,  AND  ABRIDGMENTS   OF 
CONTEMPORARY   OR   ORIGINAL   SOURCES. 

[When  books  are  described  as  belonging  to  the  Bohn  Libraries,  it  is 
understood  that  they  are  published  in  London  and  New  York,  and 
that  they  cost  from  $1.40  to  $2.00  per  volume.  The  American  pub- 
lishers are  Scribner  and  Welford.] 

Ammianus  Marcellinus,  The  Roman  History  of,  during  the  Reigns  of 
.  .  .  Constantius,  Julian,  Jovianus,  Valentinian,  and  Valens.  Edited 
in  translation  as  one  volume;  Bohn's  Libraries.  Adams  describes 
it  as  "  accurate,  faithful,  impartial."      It  is,  moreover,  vivid. 

Arrian.  The  Anabasis  of  Alexander ;  or,  the  History  of  the  Wars  and 
Conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great.  Translated  from  the  Greek  by 
E.  J.  Chinnock.  London,  1884.  $3.00.  Arrian  flourished  in  the 
first  part  of  the  second  century  of  our  era ;  but  his  book  is  one  of 
the  most  "  accurate  and  authentic  "  of  historical  works. 

Bede.  Ecclesiastical  History  of  Great  Britain  and  the  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicles.  Edited  by  Giles,  in  Bohn's  Libraries.  $2.00.  Bede 
covers  the  period  from  Caesar's  invasion  of  Britain  to  a.d.  664. 
The  "Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle"  extends  from  the  year  1  to  1154  of 
our  era.  That  portion  of  the  latter  which  relates  to  Alfred  the 
Great,  it  is  believed  to  be  practically  the  work  of  his  own  hand. 

Birch,  S.  Records  of  the  Past;  being  English  Translations  of  the 
Assyrian  and  Egyptian  Monuments.  Eleven  volumes ;  second  edi- 
tion.    London,  1875-1878.     $18.00. 

Charles,  Mrs.  R  R.  Chronicles  of  the  Schonberg-Cotta  Family.  New 
York,  1864.   $1.00.   This  work  is  so  largely  a  compilation  and  trans- 


12  AIDS    FOR    TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

latlon  from  original  and  contemporary  sources  that  it  forms  a  val- 
uable addition  to  any  library  on  the  period  of  the  Reformation. 

Chronicles  of  the  Crusades.  Bohn's  Libraries.  $2.00.  Contains 
the  chronicles  of  Richard  of  Devizes  and  Geoffrey  of  Vinsauft  con- 
cerning the  crusade  of  Richard  I.  of  England,  Joinville's  Memoirs 
of  Louis  IX.,  and  extracts  from  a  Saracenic  account  of  the  latter 
King's  Crusade. 

Chronicles,  Six  English.  Bohn's  Libraries.  $2.00.  Contains  the 
Chronicles  of  Ethelwerd,  Asser's  Life  of  Alfred,  Geoffrey  of  Mon- 
mouth, Gildas,  Nennius,  and  Richard  of  Cirencester.  One  of  the 
least  valuable  of  the  Bohn  series  for  our  purposes. 

Chronicles  of  Europe,  Early.  A  series  of  books  put  forth  by  the 
Society  for  promoting  Christian  Knowledge,  and  containing  at  pres- 
ent the  following  three  volumes  :  Italy,  by  Ugo  Balzani ;  England, 
by  James  Gairdner;  and  France,  by  Gustave  Masson.  New  York 
and  London,  1883.  $1.20  a  volume.  As  an  exposition  of  original 
sources,  the  volume  on  Italy  is  distinctly  the  most  valuable,  contain- 
ing extracts  from  Cassiodorus,  Gregory  the  Great,  the  Chronicle  of 
St.  Benedict,  the  Venetian  Chronicle  of  John  the  Deacon,  the  Let- 
ters of  Gregory  VII.,  and  the  Chronicles  of  the  Maritime  Repub- 
lics. Aside  from  the  fact  that  the  extracts  are  more  abundant 
in  this  volume,  the  work  has  also  more  value  from  the  point  of 
view  demanded  by  general  history.  The  works  on  England  and 
France  are  rather  of  the  nature  of  full  descriptive  bibliographies, 
containing  also  short  biographies  of  the  chroniclers.  That  on 
France  is  especially  of  this  nature. 

Commines,  Philip  of.  Memoirs.  London  and  New  York.  Two  vol- 
umes in  Bohn's  Libraries.  $2.80  each.  These  memoirs  contain  the 
history  of  Louis  XI.,  Charles  VIII.,  and  Charles  the  Bold,  Duke 
of  Burgundy ;  one  of  the  best  of  all  the  chronicles. 

Demosthenes,  Orations  of.  Bohn's  Libraries.  Five  volumes.  $7.00. 
The  best  original  we  have  as  showing  the  situation  of  affairs  and 
the  state  of  feeling  just  before  the  fall  of  Greece. 

Eginhard's  Life  of  Charlemagne.  Edited  in  translation  in  Harper's 
Half-hour  Series.  Twenty  cents.  Eginhard  was  the  friend  and  sec- 
retary of  Charlemagne,  and  this  work  is  the  prime  authority  for 
the  life  of  the  Great  Charles. 

Froissart,  Sir  John.  Chronicles  of  England,  France,  Spain  and  Adjoin- 
ing Countries,  from  the  Latter  Part  of  the  Reign  of  Edward  II.  to 


AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENEEAL   HISTORY.  13 

the  Coronation  of  Henry  IV.      Edited  in  translation  by  Thomas 
Johnes,  Esq.     Two  volumes.    London,  1839.     $12.00. 

For  many  schools,  the  Boy's  Froissart  edited  by  Sidney  Lanier, 
and  published  in  one  volume  by  the  Scribners  for  $3.00,  is  a  very 
desirable  introduction  to  the  expensive  original. 

Homer.  Iliad.  Prose  translation  by  Lang,  Leaf,  and  Myers.  London, 
1883.     $1.50. 

Odyssey.  Prose  translation  by  Butcher  and  Lang.  London, 
1879.  $1.50.  These  renderings  are  especially  valuable  for  historical 
purposes,  being  at  the  same  time  exact  and  beautiful.  Bryant's 
translation  of  Homer  is  also  heartily  recommended,  especially  for 
younger  pupils. 

Herodotus.  A  New  English  Version.  Edited  with  notes  and  essays 
...  by  Canon  Rawlinson,  Sir  II.  Rawlinson,  and  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkin- 
son. With  maps  and  woodcuts.  Four  volumes.  London  and 
New  York,  1859.  $10.00.  "By  far  the  most  valuable  version."  — 
Adams.  Also  in  Bohn's  Libraries.  One  volume.  $2.00.  Herodotus 
is  our  great  original  for  all  the  history  of  Greece  to  the  end  of  the 
Persian  wars.  For  these  wars  his  account  is  contemporary  and  of 
the  first  importance.     He  tells  us  much  also  of  Egypt  and  the  East. 

Livy,  TituB.  The  History  of  Rome.  Edited  in  translation  from  the 
Latin  by  George  Baker.  Two  volumes.  New  York,  18G1.  $7.50. 
Also  in  four  volumes  in  Bohn's  Libraries.  $8.00.  Of  the  one  hun- 
dred and  forty -two  original  books  of  Livy,  only  thirty-five  remain. 
These  comprise  an  interrupted  history  of  Rome  from  its  founda- 
tion to  166  B.C.  The  most  valuable  part  is  that  which  deals  with 
the  Punic  wars. 

Luther,  Martin.  Table-talk.  Translated  by  Hazlitt.  Bohn's  Libra- 
ries. $1.40.  A  selection  is  made  in  one  of  the  little  volumes  of 
Cassell's  National  Library.  Price  ten  or  twenty-five  cents,  accord- 
ing to  binding.  Most  valuable  to  give  the  spirit,  thought  and 
feeling  of  Luther. 

Mazade,  Charles  de.     Count  Cavour.     New  York.     $3.00. 

This  work  is  so  rich  in  Cavour's  own  words  that  it  becomes  a 
fine  contemporary  source  for  the  diplomatic  and  political  history 
of  the  first  half  of  our  century. 

Mazzini,  Joseph.  Life  and  Writings.  London,  1864-1870.  An 
abridgment  of  this,  with  an  introduction  by  William  Lloyd  Gar- 
rison, under  the  title  of  Joseph  Mazzini:  his  Life,  Writings,   and 


14  AIDS  FOR  TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Political  Principles  (New  York,  1872.  $1.75),  will,  perhaps,  be  as 
useful  for  the  majority  of  school  libraries.  This  life,  covering  the 
long  and  important  period  from  1809  to  1872,  and  being  the  autobi- 
ography of  a  man  who  was  at  the  very  heart  of  the  movements  for 
national  independence  and  constitutional  government,  is,  perhaps, 
the  best  single  primary  source  which  can  be  named  for  this  aspect 
of  our  nineteenth-century  history. 

Mead,  Edwin  D.  [editor].  Old  South  Leaflets.  These  leaflets  are 
invaluable  for  the  teacher  of  United  States  History.  Each  one  con- 
tains an  important  document  or  extract  illustrative  of  our  history, 
such  as  pages  from  De  Tocqueville's  Democracy  in  America,  Cotton 
Mather's  Magnalia,  the  Federalist,  etc.  Sold  at  five  cents  apiece. 
$3.00  per  hundred.  They  can  be  obtained  of  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co., 
Boston. 

Orderlcus  Vitalis.  Ecclesiastical  History  of  England  and  Normandy. 
Four  volumes.  Bohn's  Antiquarian  Library.  This  history  be- 
gins at  the  year  1  of  our  era  and  continues  to  1141.  From  1075, 
Ordericus  is  a  contemporary  of  the  history  he  relates,  and  tells  the 
story  of  this  important  formative  period  both  for  England  and 
Normandy.  He  is  a  prime  authority  for  these  years,  and  particu- 
larly valuable  as  giving  a  view  of  manners  and  of  the  political  and 
religious  state  of  contemporary  society. 

Pellico,  Silvio.  My  Ten  Years'  Imprisonment.  London  and  New 
York,  1866.  Cassell's  National  Library.  Ten  or  twenty-flve  cents, 
according  to  binding.  This  little  book  throws  a  vivid  light  on  des- 
potism, seen  from  the  point  of  view  of  an  imprisoned  Italian 
patriot. 

Pepys,  Samuel.  Diary.  Four  volumes.  In  Bohn's  Libraries.  $8.00. 
For  most  schools,  however,  the  three  little  volumes  of  extracts 
from  the  "Diary"  for  1660-1661,  for  1662-1663,  and  for  1663-1664, 
in  Cassell's  National  Library  (each  volume  ten  or  twenty-flve  cents, 
according  to  binding)  will  give  quite  enough  of  this  old  gossip,  who 
has  preserved  for  us  so  exact  a  picture  of  the  Restoration  Court. 

Plutarch.  The  translation  from  the  Greek,  known  as  Dryden's,  edited 
by  Arthur  Hugh  Clough,  is  on  the  whole  the  best.  Five  volumes. 
Boston,  1875.  $3.00.  Also  in  one  large  octavo  volume.  Also  in 
Bohn's  Libraries.  Four  volumes.  Also  in  a  cheap  edition  published 
by  Alden  of  New  York.  A  number  of  the  "  Lives"  can  be  bought 
in  Cassell's  National  Library.    Contains  forty-six  lives  of  famous 


AIDS   FOR   TEACHING   GENERAL  HISTORY.  15 

Greeks  and  Romans ;  a  work  of  capital  importance  in  every  school 
library. 
Powell,  F.  York  [editor].  English  History  from  Contemporary  Writ- 
ers. London  and  New  York,  1887,  etc.  This  is  the  name  under 
which  Mr.  Powell  is  editing  a  series  of  little  volumes,  each  one 
devoted  to  a  "  well-defined  portion  of  English  History,"  and  com- 
posed of  "  extracts  from  the  chronicles,  state  papers,  memoirs,  and 
letters  of  the  period  considered,  the  whole  arranged  in  chronologi- 
cal order,  and  accompanied  with  summaries  for  reference."  Of 
this  most  admirable  series  four  volumes  have  already  appeared, 
namely,  Edward  III.  and  his  TFars,  The  Misrule  of  Henry  III., 
Strongbow's  Conquest  of  Ireland,  and  Simon  de  Montfort  and  his 
Cause.  These  books  are  rendered istill  more  valuable  by  the  illus- 
trations, which  are  reproductions  from  contemporary  coins,  manu- 
scripts, reliefs,  carvings.  The  American  edition  costs  60  cents  a 
volume,  the  English,  a  shilling  (25  cents). 

Hemusat,  Madame  de.  Memoirs,  1802,  1808.  Published  in  transla- 
tion in  one  volume.  $2.00.  New  York,  1888.  Madame  de  Remusat 
was  one  of  Josephine's  maids  of  honor,  and  her  book  gives  an 
inside  view  of  Napoleon's  character  as  seen  at  home.  The  memoirs 
as  they  stand  were  written  from  memory,  the  first  copy  having 
been  destroyed. 

Saint-Simon,  the  Duke  of.  Memoirs  of  the  Reign  of  Louis  XIV. 
and  the  Regency.  Translated  from  the  French,  in  an  abridged  edi- 
tion of  three  octavo  volumes,  by  Bayle  St.  John.  London,  1876. 
Three  volumes.  $6.00.  This  book,  says  Adams,  was  probably  "  the 
severest  blow  the  Bourbons  ever  received." 

Schaff,  Philip.  The  Creeds  of  Christendom ;  with  a  history  and  criti- 
cal notes.  Four  volumes.  New  York,  1877,  etc.  $16.00.  This 
work  contains  the  formal  creeds  and  official  statements  of  doctrine, 
from  the  Apostles'  Creed  to  the  present  time. 

Scoones,  "W.  Baptiste.  Four  Centuries  of  English  Letters  :  selections 
from  the  correspondence  of  150  writers,  from  the  period  of  the 
"  Paston  Letters  "  (fifteenth  century)  to  the  present  day.  London, 
1883.  $2.40.  The  selection  is  made  on  the  basis  of  style  or  con- 
tents.    Their  interest  is  rather  social  than  political. 

Story  of  the  Burnt  Njal.  Edited  by  G.  W.  Dasent.  Two  volumes. 
London.     $7.50.    This  is  an  admirable  version  of  an  old  Icelandic 


16  AIDS  FOB   TEACHING  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

Saga,  in  which,  more  closely,  perhaps,  than  in  any  other  single  work, 
one  can  see  reflected  the  manners,  temper,  institutions,  and  char- 
acter of  our  Teutonic  ancestors.  Unfortunately,  it  is  now  very 
rare,  and  brings  a  high  price.* 

Suetonius.  Lives  of  the  Twelve  Caesars  [Julius  Caesar  to  Domitian, 
inclusive].  One  volume.  In  Bohn's  Classical  Library.  $2.00. 
Although  Suetonius  is  a  standard  authority  for  this  subject,  he  is 
a  much  less  desirable  original  to  possess  than  Tacitus  or  Plutarch, 
since  the  last-named  writers  join  to  historic  faithfulness  the  highest 
excellences  of  style. 

Tacitus,  C.  Cornelius,  The  Works  of.  Edited  in  translation.  Two 
volumes  in  Bohn's  Library.  4^.00.  Contents  :  Annals  and  History 
of  the  Empire  during  the  first  century  a.d.  to  the  accession  of 
Vespasian,  including  account  of  the  Jews ;  a  treatise  on  the  situa- 
tion, manners,  and  inhabitants  of  Germany;  the  life  of  Agricola; 
a  dialogue  on  Oratory.     One  of  the  first  originals  to  be  obtained. 

Thucydides.  The  History  of  the  Peloponnesian  War.  Edited  in 
translation  by  B.  Jowett.  Two  volumes.  London  and  New  York, 
1881.  Vol.  I.,  Translation;  Vol.  II.,  Notes,  Essays,  and  Disserta- 
tions. $8.00.  A  brilliant  translation  of  a  great  original.  Less 
expensive  but  still  good  is  the  version  to  be  obtained  in  Bohn's 
Classical  Library.    Two  volumes.     $2.80. 

1  Lacking  this,  one  might  still  obtain  Dasent's  "  Popular  Tales  from  the 
Norse."  This  book  is  also  rare;  but  one  can  easily  get  Anderson's  "Viking 
Tales  of  the  North,"  [Chicago,  :52.00],  or  Mabie's  "Norse  Stories  retold  from 
the  Edda"  [New  York,  31.00]. 


QUESTIONS   IN   ROMAN   HISTORY. 

Designed  to  cover  both  Sheldon's  and  Swinton's  General  Histories. 


In  answering  these  questions,  the  text-book  used  should  be  named,  as 
this  fact  will  make  a  difference  in  the  character  and  proportion  of  the 
answers. 


1.  Describe  the  physical  geography  of  Italy,  and  state  its 
advantages  for  the  development  of  Roman  power.  Name  the 
races  inhabiting  it  at  the  earliest  period  of  its  history,  and  locate 
each  geographically. 

2.  What  was  the  earliest  form  of  government  at  Eome  ? 
Who  were  the  plebeians  ?  the  patricians  ?  Describe  the  politi- 
cal and  social  condition  of  each  in  the  earliest  period  of  Roman 
history.  What  was  the  Comitia  Curiata  (Curiate  Assembly)  ? 
The  Comitia  Centnriata  (Centuriate  Assembly)  ? 

3.  Into  what  periods  may  you  divide  the  history  of  the 
Roman  Republic  ?     Give  the  bounding  dates  of  each  period. 

4.  What  is  the  story  of  Cincinnatus  ?  What  character  did 
Cincinnatus  display  ? 

5.  What  changes  were  made  in  favor  of  the  plebeians  from 
510  to  264  B.C.  ?  How  were  these  changes  brought  about  ? 
Define  or  describe  each  of  the  following  terms :  consul,  dicta- 
tor, tribune  of  the  plebs,  veto,  assembly  of  the  tribes,  twelve 
tables. 

6.  Tell  what  you  know  of  the  Gallic  invasion  of  Rome. 

7.  Describe  the  Roman  territory  at  each  of  the  following 
dates,  —  510  e.g.,  264  b.c,  146  b.c,  27  b.c.  Characterize  and 
name  its  government  at  each  of  these  dates. 


18  QUESTIONS   IN   ROMAN   HISTORY. 

8.  How  did  Rome  secure  and  consolidate  her  conquests? 
What  relations  existed  between  Rome  and  the  Italians  before 
the  so-called  "  Social  War'^?  What  duties  and  privileges  dis- 
tinguished the  Roman  citizen  before  this  time  ? 

9.  What  was  the  origin  of  the  first  Punic  war  ?  What  was 
its  result  to  Rome  ?  to  Carthage  ? 

10.  How  did  the  second  Punic  war  come  about  ?  In  what 
did  the  greatness  of  Hannibal  consist  ?  On  what  occasions  did 
he  display  this  greatness?  What  was  the  outcome  of  the 
second  Punic  war  ? 

11.  What  was  the  cause  and  what  the  result  of  the  third 
Punic  war  ? 

12.  What  other  conquests  were  made  by  Rome  during  the 
time  of  the  Punic  wars  ? 

13.  Describe  a  Roman  province  as  it  existed  in  the  last  age 
of  the  Republic. 

14.  Contrast  the  Roman  personal  character  of  the  fourth 
with  that  of  the  first  century  b.c.  To  what  do  you  attribute 
the  change?  Contrast  the  same  periods  in  regard  to  the 
Roman  political  character.  Describe  the  elder  Cato  (Cato  the 
Censor). 

15.  What  do  you  understand  by  an  "  agrarian  law  "  ?  Ex- 
plain the  relation  between  slavery  and  the  small  Italian  farmers 
in  the  latter  days  of  the  Republic.  What  became  of  the  small 
farmers  ? 

16.  Who  were  the  Gracchi  and  for  what  did  they  contend  ? 
What  parties  arose  from  their  contentions,  and  with  what 
leaders  ?     Which  of  these  two  parties  did  Caesar  represent  ? 

17.  What  were  the  conquests  of  Rome  after  146  b.c.  ?  What 
generals  led  her  in  these  conquests,  and  in  what  war  or  wars 
was  each  famous  ? 

18.  Who  were  involved  in  the  "  Social  War "  ?  What  was 
its  cause,  and  what  its  result  ?  What  event  do  you  associate 
with  the  name  of  Catiline?  What  troubles  arose  from  the 
slaves  of  Rome? 


QTJESTIOlsrS   IK   ROMAN   HISTORY.  l9 

19.  What  do  you  understand  by  the  "  Triumvirates "  ? 
What  was  the  aim  and  what  the  end  of  each  ?  What  decisive 
battle  finally  ended  each?  Describe  the  relation  of  Caesar 
to  Gaul. 

20.  Describe  the  crossing  of  the  Eubicon.  Under  what  title 
and  with  what  powers  was  Caesar  ruling  Eome  just  before  his 
death  ?  Why  and  by  whom  was  he  slain  ?  Describe  the  work 
of  Caesar  for  Eome.  In  what  did  his  greatness  consist? 
Compare  him  with  Pericles. 

21.  Describe  the  boundaries  of  the  Eoman  Empire  under 
Augustus  Caesar.    Under  what  forms  did  he  rule  ?     Illustrate. 

22.  What  were  the  corn-bounties  at  Eome,  and  what  was 
their  result  ?  The  gladiatorial  games  ?  What  was  the  Coli- 
seum ? 

23.  What  modern  countries  have  been  formed  from  the 
Eoman  Empire  ? 

24.  What  civilizations  were  included  in  that  empire  ?  Clas- 
sify the  provinces  according  to  their  civilizations. 

25.  What  was  the  greatest  period  of  Eoman  art  and  litera- 
ture ?     Name  four  Eomans  distinguished  in  these  directions. 

26.  Name  four  distinguished  or  remarkable  emperors  after 
Augustus,  stating  in  what  century,  and  for  what  each  was 
famous. 

27.  What  was  the  Pretorian  guard  ?  Describe  Eoman  citi- 
zenship as  it  existed  under  the  early  empire.  What  great 
change  was  wrought  in  regard  to  it,  and  by  whom,  after  the 
days  of  the  Antonines  ? 

28.  What  great  constitutional  change  was  made  in  the  latter 
part  of  the  third  century,  and  by  whom  ? 

29.  Name  two  things  for  which  Constantine  is  noted. 

30.  What  was  the  effect  of  Eome  on  the  provinces  ?  Prove 
it.  Who  were  the  barbarians?  What  effect  had  they  in 
Eome? 

31.  Compare  the  western  and  eastern  empires  of  Eome  in 
regard  to  civilization,  language,  government,  population. 


20  QUESTIONS   IN  GREEK  HISTORY. 

32.  Give  the  striking  points  in  regard  to  the  growth  of 
Christianity  within  the  empire.  Why  did  Rome  regard  Chris- 
tianity as  dangerous  ?  State  the  points  of  opposition  and  con- 
trast between  the  Christians  and  the  Pagan  empire.  What 
was  the  relation  between  Christianity  and  literature  in  the 
last  two  centuries  of  the  empire  ? 

33.  What  unity  existed  in  the  later  Roman  empire  ?  What 
sources  of  decay  and  corruption  ?     Illustrate. 

34.  Contrast  the  Roman  and  the  Teuton  as  they  were  at 
400  A.D.  What  had  been  the  relations  of  Roman  and  Teuton 
before  476  a.d.  ?  Name  three  of  the  barbarian  leaders,  and 
tell  something  of  each. 

35.  Describe  the  so-called  "Fall  of  Rome."  To  what  do 
you  attribute  that  event  ? 


QUESTIONS  IN  GREEK  HISTORY. 

Designed  to  cover  both  Sheldon's  and  SwintoTi's  General  Histories. 


In  answering  these  questions,  the  pupil  should  state  which  of  the  two 
text-books  has  been  used,  since  the  character  and  proportion  of  the 
answers  may  vary  according  to  this  fact. 


1.  Describe  the  physical  geography  of  Hellas.  Contrast  it 
with  that  of  Egypt  and  Assyria.  What  political  results  fol- 
lowed from  its  peculiarities  ?  What  industrial  results  ?  What 
were  its  advantages  for  an  early  civilization  ?  AVhat  ranges 
of  territory  were  occupied  by  the  Greeks  ?  Name  four  cities 
in  which  Greek  power  and  civilization  centred. 

2.  What  great  contrast  between  the  history  of  Egypt  or 
Assyria  and  that  of  Greece  ?  Which  history  is  the  more  valu- 
able to  us,  and  why  ? 


QUESTIONS   IN   GREEK   HISTORY.  21 

3.  Write  a  short  description  of  the  Trojan  war,  giving  par- 
ties engaged,  cause,  result,  and  place.  What  is  the  subject 
and  who  the  author  of  the  Iliad  ?     Of  the  Odyssey  ? 

4.  Describe  the  Homeric  Age  in  regard  to  government,  the 
family,  religion,  ideals  of  manhood. 

5.  What  were  the  foreign  influences  felt  by  early  Greece  ? 
In  what  ways  did  Greece  show  something  new  to  the  world  ? 

6.  Give  the  periods  of  Greek  history,  with  their  bounding 
dates.     What  is  meant  by  an  Olympiad  ? 

7.  What  relation  between  the  Dorian  migration  and  the 
Greek  cities  in  Asia  Minor  ? 

8.  What  were  the  two  leading  states  of  Greece  ?  Describe 
each  in  race,  location,  character,  fame  and  influence.  What 
great  change  in  their  government  occurs  between  the  Homeric 
Age  and  500  e.g.? 

9.  Name  three  bonds  of  union  felt  by  all  Hellenes.  What 
remark  have  you  to  make  in  regard  to  the  comparative  strength 
of  the  principles  of  unity  and  of  localization  among  them? 
Illustrate. 

10.  Who  was  Lycurgus  ?  Describe  the  political  constitution 
of  Sparta,  according  to  the  Lycurgan  laws.  What  was  the 
system  of  education  imposed  by  them  ?  Describe  the  results 
of  the  Spartan  system  to  the  state,  the  family,  the  individual. 

11.  Describe  the  constitution  of  Athens  before  the  time  of 
Solon.     What  great  changes  were  introduced  by  him  ? 

12.  In  what  sense,  was  Pisistratus  a  tyrant  ?  How  did  he 
gain  and  how  exercise  his  power  ? 

13.  What  were  the  reforms  of  Clisthenes  ?  After  these  re- 
forms, what  name  should  be  applied  to  the  political  constitution 
of  Athens  ? 

14.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  Persian  wars  ?  Compare  the 
Greek  and  Persian  dominions  at  500  B.C.  Compare  their  unity, 
government,  and  civilization. 

15.  Note  the  chief  events  from  492-479  e.g.  Of  these  events, 
which  were  most  decisive  or  noteworthy  ?     Name  and  charac- 


22  QXTESTIONS  IN  GREEK  HISTORY. 

terize  the  Greek  leaders  in  these  wars.     Tell  the  story  of  Ther- 
mopylae.    What  relation  between  Thermopylae  and  Lycurgus  ? 

16.  What  were  the  results  of  the  Persian  wars  to  Athens  ? 
to  Sparta  ?  to  Hellas  in  general  ? 

17.  What  distinguished  the  age  of  Pericles?  Name  four 
special  directions  of  Greek  greatness  during  this  age. 

18.  What  was  the  cause  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  and  what 
its  immediate  occasion  ?•  What  parties  were  involved  in  it,  and 
how  was  each  characterized  ?  What  were  its  results  to  Athens  ? 
to  Sparta  ?  to  Hellas  in  general  ? 

19.  What  was  the  last  Greek  city  to  rise  to  Hellenic  power, 
and  who  was  her  most  famous  leader? 

20.  Under  what  leader  and  by  what  methods  did  Macedon 
obtain  Greek  supremacy  ?  Who  was  Philip's  chief  opponent 
in  Greece,  and  by  what  method  did  this  opponent  work  against 
him?  What  position  did  he  desire  to  acquire  for  Macedon 
in  relation  to  the  Greek  states  ?  Of  what  importance  is  the 
date  338  b.c? 

21.  Name  the  principal  points  in  the  route  of  Alexander's 
conquests.  What  countries  belonged  to  his  empire?  What 
empire  did  he  obtain  possession  of?  In  the  name  of  what 
people  were  his  conquests  made?  What  was  done  witli  his 
empire  at  his  death  ?  What  important  and  permanent  states 
sprang  from  it  ?  What  were  the  results  of  the  Alexandrian 
conquests  to  civilization?  what  civilizations  did  these  con- 
quests bring  together? 

22.  What  were  the  Greek  leagues  ?  "What  modern  govern- 
ments do  they  somewhat  resemble  ? 

23.  What  seems  to  you  to  be  the  general  cause  of  the  in- 
ability of  Greece  to  stand  against  Macedon,  and  later  against 
Rome?  What  the  peculiar  excellence  of  the  Greek  state ^ 
What  the  peculiar  excellence  of  the  Greek  character  ? 


DETAILED   DIRECTIONS 

FOB 

MANAGING    A    LESSON    IN     SHELDON'S     STUDIES 
IN   GENERAL   HISTORY. 

(Study  on  page  15.) 

1.   PREPARATION. 

People  often  feel  that  the  study  of  history  is  a  mass  of 
reading.  But  here,  as  elsewhere,  the  first  work  must  be  the 
study  of  a  few  typical  realities.  To  put  some  of  these  typical 
realities  into  the  hands  of  every  student  is  the  object  of  the 
Studies;  and  unless  the  pupils  have  extra  time  or  ability,  my 
own  judgment  is,  that  at  first,  their  time  and  attention  should 
be  very  thoroughly  confined  to  the  Studies.  I  think  I  may  say 
with  safety,  that  there  is  not  a  question  in  the  book  which 
may  not  be  answered  from  the  materials  furnished  in  the  way 
of  fact  or  extract,  plus  the  pupiVs  intelligent  labor  and  thought. 
Extra  reading  should  follow  when  the  pupil  has  the  power  and 
.,j4ke  time  to  assimilate  it,  and  not  before;  in  the  latter  case  it 
degenerates  into  mere  stuffing.  The  very  essence  of  the 
method  here  attempted  is  that  it  is  study,  study  of  reality ; 
one  live  bird  is  better  than  a  case  full  of  stuffed  ones.  If  your 
pupil  approaches  the  study  of  anatomy  for  the  first  time,  you 
don't  confuse  him  by  presenting  too  many  creatures  at  once, 
you  stick  pretty  closely  to  the  cat,  the  frog,  the  chicken,  —  in 
short,  to  your  accessible  types.  So,  in  the  Studies,  I  have  tried 
to  collect  typical  materials  on  which  the  first  rude  general 
work  should  be  done.  Afterwards  comes  the  time  for  the 
general  reading  which  will  strengthen,  extend,  and  adorn 
knowledge.  This,  then,  decides  the  nature  of  the  preparation : 
it  must  be  study,  not  reading ;  it  must  consist,  for  the  pupil, 
in  working  out  the  answers  to  the  problems  set  on  a  given 


Z  STUDIES   IN    GENERAL  HISTORY. 

text  as  independently  as  if  he  were  doing  a  problem  in  algebra 
or  a  translation  in  Caesar.  For  instance,  suppose  it  is  the 
second-question  on  page  15 :  Make  a  list  of  all  the  arts  and  sciences 
that  are  indicated  by  the  pictures.  {See  note  also.)  The  pupil 
will  turn  to  the  picture  of  the  colossal  Rameses  on  page  11  and 
begin  to  ask  himself:  What  arts  or  sciences  must  one  have 
known  to  do  this  ?  Probably  sculpture  will  occur  to  him  at 
once.  Then  he  will  see  from  the  note  that  this  Rameses  is 
cut  from  solid  rock,  so  he  will  notice  stone-cutting.  Then  his 
mind  will  run  back  and  ask:  What  must  he  have  known  in 
order  to  cut  stone,  and  the  answer  will  come,  —  he  must  have 
had  stone-cutting  tools,  either  of  metal  or  of  harder  stone  ;  but 
from  the  fineness  and  smoothness  of  the  work  on  Rameses'  face, 
these  tools  must  have  been  of  metal;  and  if  he  used  metal 
tools,  he  must  have  known  the  arts  of  mining  and  of  metal- 
working,  and  so,  something  of  the  sciences  of  chemistry  and 
metallurgy.  Then,  turning  to  the  picture  of  the  pyramids,  he 
will  work  in  the  same  way,  looking  and  thinking  of  the  mean- 
ing of  what  he  sees ;  the  picture  of  the  pyramids,  taken  in 
connection  with  the  descriptive  note  attached,  will  confirm 
the  list  already  made  and  add  to  it  astronomy,  geometry,  engi- 
neering, quarrying,  river-navigation,  physics.  So  with  each 
question  given,  he  must  work  its  answer  out  by  observation 
of  and  reflection  upon  the  given  material. 

If  the  teacher  is  using  the  Studies  for  the  first  time,  he 
must  prepare  his  own  lesson  in  the  same  way  as  the  pupil  does ; 
but  to  facilitate  his  work,  I  have  in  the  appropriate  place  in 
the  manual  given  him  the  due  to  the  answers  expected,  em- 
bodying them  in  the  text  or  in  the  summaries.  He  must  also 
have  in  his  mind  a  clear  summary  of  the  points  that  he  wishes 
to  make  with  his  class,  and  be  himself  as  familiar  as  possible 
with  the  given  texts  or  facts  of  the  Studies.  But  if  the  teacher 
is  doing  this  work  for  the  second  or  third  time,  his  time  will 
be  best  spent  in  reading  some  good  authority  on  the  matter  in 
hand,  as,  in  the  lesson  referred  to  above,  —  Wilkinson's  Ancient 
Egyptians. 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY.  3 

If  this,  too,  has  been  done,  he  may  come  to  the  truly  enliven- 
ing part  of  his  preparation,  the  gathering  of  new  illustrative 
material  for  himself  and  his  class  out  of  accessible  originals, 
such  as  The  Records  of  the  Fast,  or  some  of  the  reports  on 
Egyptian  exploration  made  in  the  Century  articles. 

In  fact,  the  teacher  should  press  on  to  work  of  this  nature 
as  rapidly  as  possible,  since,  from  that  time  on,  he  and  his 
pupils  will  feel  the  true  breath  of  life  in  all  their  studies.  I 
do  not  believe  any  teacher  can  attain  the  spiritual  quality  of 
enthusiasm,  who  is  not  a  student  of  the  realities  of  his  subject ; 
so  long  as  he  is  shut  up  to  what  the  books  say,  his  work  will 
be  positive,  indeed,  but  positive  because  cut  and  dried ;  let  him 
not  only  be  a  student,  but  let  the  pupils  see  and  feel  him  to  be 
such;  let  them  share  his  doubts,  his  ignorance,  his  discoveries 
and  pleasures  :  that  is  true  intellectual  life. 

2.   GENERAL   DIRECTIONS   FOR  THE   RECITATION. 

The  teacher  should  question  rather  from  his  summary  than 
from  the  set  questions  of  the  book ;  the  latter  plan  tends  to 
make  the  work  dull  and  stiff.  The  pupil,  besides,  has  already 
had  the  benefit  of  these  book-questions  in  his  private  study  ; 
in  fact,  the  teacher  should  use  the  book  in  the  class  only  for 
reference,  and  be  as  free  from  it  as  he  expects  his  pupils  to 
be ;  the  recitation  should  give  new  points  of  view,  the  discus- 
sion be  perfectly  free,  calling  for  readiness  and  wit. 

3.  PARTICULAR  SKETCH  OF  A  PART  OF  THE  CLASS- 
ROOM WORK   ON   THE   LESSON    ON  PAGE  15. 

Teacher.  Alice  and  Henry  may  go  to  the  board  and  write 
their  lists  of  the  arts  and  sciences  known  to  the  Egyptians, 
while  the  rest  of  us  talk  about  the  religion.  How  do  we 
know  that  they  had  any  religion,  anyway,  Philip  ? 

Philip.   Why,  because  they  prayed. 

Teacher.   And  how  do  you  know  that  ? 


4  STUDIES  IK  GEKERAL  HISTORY. 

Philip.  Because  we  have  their  prayers ;  there  is  the  prayer 
to  the  sun,  and  the  prayer  of  Rameses,  and  the  prayer  to  the 
Chief  God. 

Teacher.   What  other  proof  that  they  had  a  religion  ? 

Anna.  We  know  that  they  had  temples,  from  the  pictures  of 
them,  and  from  the  lists  of  buildings  made  by  the  kings. 

Laura.  They  had  images  of  the  gods,  and  sang  hymns  to 
them. 

Teacher.   What  proof  have  you  of  that  ? 

Laura.  Because  there  is  a  picture  of  one  of  these  images, 
and  we  have  one  of  the  hymns  to  the  Nile. 

Teacher.  Well,  I  think  we  may  fairly  put  down  religion  as 
a  part  of  the  old  Egyptian  life.  (Writes  it  on  the  board  in 
proper  place  in  the  summary  already  begun  in  a  previous 
lesson.  Seepage  4,  Manual.)  And  now,  what  about  the  num- 
ber of  the  gods,  James  ? 

James.   They  had,  at  least,  several. 

Teacher.   For  instance  ? 

James.  They  worshipped  the  Nile,  the  sun,  a  god  that  they 
call  the  Lord  of  Truth,  and  another  that  they  call  Ammon. 

Teacher.  Do  you  know  how  we  describe  a  religion  where 
the  people  believe  in  more  than  one  god.  (No  one  answers. 
The  teacher  should  never  wait  long  for  a  technical  or  unknown 
word,  but  should  give  it  himself  if  the  class  does  not  at  once 
supply  it.)  We  call  it  Polytheistic.  (Writes  the  word  on  the 
board,  under  Religion.)  And  what  sort  of  objects  are  the 
Nile  and  the  sun,  Carlton  ? 

Carlton.   Why,  I  suppose  we  might  call  them  natural. 

Teacher.  (Writes  on  the  board  Nature-ioorship,  after  Poly- 
theistic.) What  did  they  see  in  the  Nile  to  worship  ?  Jenny, 
what  do  you  say  ? 

Jenny.   The  Nile  gave  them  life. 

Teacher.   How  so  ? 

Jenny.  Why,  the  Nile  made  the  grass  grow  in  the  meadows, 
and  the  grass  fed  the  oxen  and  made  them  live  and  grow,  and 
then  the  oxen  fed  men  and  made  them  live  and  grow. 


STUDIES   IN   GENERAL   HISTORY.  5 

Teacher.   And  wliat  about  the  Nile  ? 

Jenny.    Nobody  fed  that,  so  far  as  they  could  see. 

(Here  is  a  place  where  it  is  quite  appropriate  for  the  teacher 
to  add  something  himself  to  the  general  fund ;  he  may  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  Nile  was  the  one  river  of  Egypt, 
and  a  branchless  river,  coming  eternally  full  of  life-giving 
water  from  some  unknown  source.  The  reasons  why  the  sun 
would  seem  divine  should  then  be  discussed  in  the  same  way ; 
such  a  talk  brings  the  pupil  into  historic  sympathy  with  the 
old  Egyptian's  point  of  view,  and  he  comes  to  feel  that,  after 
all,  the  old  fellow  was  kith  and  kin  of  his  own,  and  that  he, 
too,  would  have  been  an  old  Egyptian  once  upon  a  time.) 

Teacher.  Now  we  have  just  been  saying  that  the  religious 
belief  was  polytheistic ;  now,  do  you  know,  that  doesn't  seem 
quite  true  to  me ;  does  it  to  you.  Will  ?  Did  you  see  anything 
to  make  you  think  that  they  had  a  tendency  to  believe  in  one 
god  ;  that  is,  to  be  monotheists  ? 

Will.   It  says  in  one  place,  "  prayer  to  the  Chief  God." 

Teacher.  Yes ;  but  is  there  any  proof  in  the  prayer  that  he 
is  chief?  (No  one  knows.)  I  think  you  could  easily  have 
seen  that ;  but  now  look  again  at  this  prayer.  (All  open  their 
"books  to  page  10.  There  is  a  moment's  silence.)  Ah!  some 
of  you  see  already ;  what  do  you  see,  Mary  ? 

Mary.  He  seems  to  have  made  the  other  gods ;  for  it  says,  — 
at  whose  command  the  gods  were  made. 

John.  And  he  is  greater  than  the  Nile ;  for  it  says,  —  at 
whose  pleasure  the  Nile  overflows  her  hanks. 

Teacher.  Good ;  that  wasn't  so  hard  to  see,  after  all.  (This 
is  the  way  in  which  total  failure  on  the  part  of  the  pupils 
must  be  met,  when  the  teacher  is  sure  such  failure  is  not  due 
to  carelessness.  In  the  latter  case,  the  teacher  will  simply 
leave  the  matter  for  another  trial  on  the  following  day ;  but, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  work,  before  pupils  understand  very 
clearly  what  is  expected  of  them,  it  is  well  for  the  teacher  to 
help  them  by  doing  some  actual  study  with  them  in  the  class- 
room.    Such  help  should  not  be  given  afterward,  except  in 


6  STUDIES  IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

cases  where  the  teacher  sees  that  the  question  is  really  too 
difficult  for  the  average  of  the  class,  in  which  case  it  is  always 
best  to  have  recourse  to  the  text  on  the  spot.)  So  you  see 
that  though  the  Egyptians  believed  in  many  gods,  —  they 
believed,  in  fact,  in  many  more  than  those  named  here,  —  yet 
they  also  had  the  thought  of  one  god  above  all  gods ;  so,  we 
must  add  Tendencies  to  Monotheism  here  to  Polytheistic  Nature- 
worship.  Now,  what  did  they  think  about  the  immortality  to 
the  soul  ?     Kate,  what  do  you  say  ? 

Kate.  They  believed  in  it ;  at  least,  in  the  Book  of  the  Dead, 
the  soul  is  represented  as  coming  before  Osiris  after  death  for 
judgment,  and  then,  if  Osiris  is  contented  with  it,  going  on  to 
Elysium. 

Teacher.   And  what  about  the  bodies  ? 

Mary.   They  embalmed  them ;  put  them  up  to  keep. 

Teacher.  Perhaps  some  of  you  know  from  your  general  read- 
ing why  they  wanted  to  keep  the  bodies ;  well,  Mary  again  ? 

Mary.  They  thought  some  day  that  the  soul  would  want 
the  body  again. 

Will.  Why,  that  is  just  what  we  Christians  believe  about 
the  resurrection  of  the  body ;  we  think  the  soul  and  body  will 
last  forever,  too. 

Teacher.  Yes,  a  great  many  people  do  think  so.  (The 
teacher  must  not  allow  himself  to  be  drawn  off  into  any  state- 
ment of  his  own  belief  here,  although  to  a  certain  extent  he 
may  allow  his  pupils  to  express  themselves  on  these  delicate 
religious  matters.  Teacher  writes  Immortality  of  the  Soul, 
on  the  board,  under  Religion,) 

Teacher.  Now,  when  I  asked  you  for  proofs  that  Egyptians 
had  a  religion,  you  said  right  away  "  they  prayed  to  the  gods  "; 
now  what  made  them  pray  to  the  gods,  James  ? 

James.  Why,  because  they  wanted  things,  and  they  thought 
that  the  gods  could  give  them  to  them. 

Teacher.   What  were  some  of  the  things  they  prayed  for  ? 

(Various  members  of  the  class  answer,  "  Success  in  war," 
"  Help  in  trouble,"  "  Justice,"  etc.) 


STUDIES   IK  GENERAL  HISTORY.  7 

Teacher.  What  do  such  prayers  show  that  they  thought  of 
the  gods  ? 

Various  members.    That  they  were  powerful,  kind,  just. 

(Teacher  writes  on  the  board  Believed  gods  would  and 
could  help  men.  The  teacher  may,  if  he  thinks  best,  also 
call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this  is  really  the  belief  in  special 
providence.) 

Teacher.  When  you  were  naming  the  gods,  there  was  one 
whom  you  did  not  name. 

James.  Well,  I  wanted  to  ask  you  about  the  king;  it  seemed 
as  if  they  prayed  to  him,  tOo,  just  as  if  he  were  a  god. 

Teacher.  You  are  quite  right.  The  king  was  like  a  god  to 
them ;  just  turn  to  page  14,  and  see  how  they  address  him ; 
read  a  sentence,  Jenny,  in  which  they  speak  to  him  as  if  he 
were  a  god. 

(Jenny  reads,  "  Hail  to  thee,  Horus,  sacred  majesty  " ;  others 
read  other  sentences  showing  the  same  thing.  The  teacher 
then  asks,  "  Mary,  do  you  remember  from  our  lesson  of  yester- 
day another  fact  that  shows  that  the  religion  had  a  good  deal 
to  do  with  the  government  ?  ") 

Mary.  Yes ;  the  king  was  a  priest,  and  the  chief  high  priest 
was  next  to  the  king. 

Other  members  give  other  facts,  as  that  the  king  was  always 
building  temples,  that  the  priests  held  many  offices,  etc. 
Teacher  writes  on  the  board,  Close  union  of  religion  with  the 
state,  as  shown  in  importance  of  temples  and  priests,  and  sacred- 
ness  of  king. 

Meanwhile  the  lists  have  been  placed  on  the  board,  and  the 
teacher  will  proceed  in  a  similar  way  to  collect  the  points 
for  the  intellectual,  industrial,  political,  social,  and  moral  life 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  as  per  summary.  In  this  sort  of 
work,  the  teacher  will  notice,  first,  —  that  the  questions  follow 
a  summary  in  his  own  mind,  rather  than  the  order  of  questions 
in  the  book ;  as  has  been  already  said,  this  gives  freshness  and 
order  to  the  work.  Second,  —  new  terms  are  given  at  once,  as 
soon  as,  but  after,  the  thing  they  name  is  understood  j  exam- 


8  STUDIES   IN  GENERAL  HISTORY. 

pies,  Polytheism,  Nature-worship,  Monotheism.  Third,  —  and 
greatest  of  all,  constant  reference  must  he  made  to  the  text.  It 
must  be  appealed  to  as  proof  of  the  pupils'  statements,  and  be 
their  referee  in  all  cases  of  dispute.  In  short,  it  must  be  used 
just  as  the  specimen  would  be  used  in  botany;  and  if  the  teacher 
has  been  able  to  collect  still  other  material  from  the  sources, 
it  should  be  used  similarly,  to  prove,  test,  modify,  or  broaden 
opinion. 

The  above  has  been  written  on  the  supposition  that  the 
teacher  is  as  yet  in  the  "  little  go  "  of  his  teaching,  and  is  still 
confined  to  his  text-books  in  hand ;  if,  however,  he  has  had 
time  to  do  further  reading,  or  if,  best  of  all,  he  has  had  time 
to  hunt  up  new  pictures  and  extracts,  he  will  be  able  to  enrich 
every  moment  of  the  hour.  In  the  latter  case,  however,  there 
is  real  danger  of  his  getting  in  the  way  of  the  pupil,  and  he 
must  always  remember  that  he  is  in  the  class-room,  first  of  all, 
to  give  full  play  to  the  pupils.  Let  their  oivn  work  stand  out 
simple,  clear,  and  strong,  rectified  -by  your  own  greater  knowl- 
edge and  judgment. 

What  the  teacher  brings  from  his  own  stores  should  be  connected 
with  what  the  pupils  have  themselves  done.  It  should  be  illus- 
trative and  cumulative  in  its  effect,  and  be  in  plain  sight  from 
their  elementary  point  of  view.  But,  keeping  this  primal 
principle  in  view,  let  him  go  as  far  afield  with  them  as  he 

possibly  can. 

MARY  SHELDON  BARNES. 


14  DAY  USE 

RJb"!  URN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

EDUCATION-PSYCHOLOGY 
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^Hli^^-rr/T."                             Uoiv^^^igSJ^ci. 

J  LJ     OOsJHH 


54? 09 4 


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